BEETHOVEN.
UNIVERSE OF TORONTO!
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BEETHOVEN.
BY
RICHARD WAGNER.
WITH A SUPPLEMENT FltOM THE PHILOSOPHICAL
WOEKS 01'' ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER,
TRANSLATED BY
EDWARD DANNREUTHER.
LONDON :
WM. REEVES, 83, CHARING CROSS ROAD,W.C.
Publisher of Musical Works.
1903
THIRD EDITION.
PRINTED BY
WILLIAM REEVES, 83, CHARING CROSS ROAD,
LONDON, W.C.
TRANSLATOR'S NOTE.
WAGNER'S Beethoven was written and printed
in 1870, the year of the Franco-Prussian war.
The first part of Schopenhauer's principal work,
Die Welt als Wille und Vorstelhmg, is dated
1818, the second part 1844 ; Parerga und
Paralipomena, 1851.
It may perhaps not be superfluous to state
here that Schopenhauer confesses his view of
Music to be essentially incapable of proof ; that
his theory of dreams and visions is in the main
hypothetical ; and that Wagner makes use of
the latter by way of analogy and elucidation
only.
PREFACE.
THE author of the present work felt it in-
cumbent upon him to contribute his share
towards the celebration of the hundredth anni-
versary of Beethoven's birth, and as no other
opportunity worthy of the occasion was afforded
him he chose to offer a written exposition of
his thoughts on the significance of Beethoven's
music. The form of the treatise was suggested
by the idea that the author was called upon
to deliver an oration at some ideal celebration
in honour of the great musician ; and as such
an oration was not to be spoken, he took leave
to expound his thoughts at a greater length
than would have been permissible had he
actually addressed an audience. Thus he was
enabled to submit a more thorough investiga-
tion of the nature of music, i.e., a contribution
Vlll PREFACE.
towards the philosophy of music, to the con-
sideration of thoughtful and cultivated readers.
The supposition that the treatise was actually
delivered as a speech to a German audience on
a particular day of this so remarkably im-
portant year, will justify a warm reference to
the stirring events of the time. And as the
author has been enabled to plan and execute
his task under the immediate impressions of
these events, he would desire a like advantage
for it in the reading; may the present excita-
tion of the German heart and head faciltate
a more intimate contact with the depths of the
German spirit than may be looked for in the
sluggish course of ordinary national life !
LUCERNE, September, 1870.
T appears difficult to give a satisfactory
account of the true relation a great artist
bears towards his nation, and the difficulty
is enhanced to the highest degree as soon as one
attempts to speak, not of a poet or a plastic artist,
but of a musician.
In judging of poets and plastic artists, the fact has
probably never been lost sight of that the manner in
which they take cognisance of the events and the
forms of the world is, in the main, determined by the
particular nature of the nation to which they belong.
The language in which a poet writes will colour the
perceptions he puts forth, and the peculiarities of his
country and its people will assuredly, in no less degree,
modify a plastic artist's form and colour . But neither
by speech nor by any visible shape of his land and
his people is a musician connected with the one or
the other. It has, therefore, been assumed that the
language of tones belongs equally to all men, and
2 BEETHOVEN.
that melody is the absolute language in which a
musician addresses every heart. Upon closer exami-
nation, however, it appears obvious that one may
well speak of German music as distinct from Italian ;
and one may point to the peculiar singing gift of
the Italians as a physiological and national trait
that has determined the development of their music,
much as the partial absence of such a special gift has
impelled the Germans towards their own musical
domain.
But as this distinction does not in the least touch
the essentials of musical language, as every melody,
be it of Italian or German origin, is equally intelli-
gible, it is impossible to take this point, which after
all is merely an external one, as though it could exert
a determining influence upon a musician similar to
the influence language exerts upon a poet, or the
physiognomical condition of his country upon a
plastic artist: for in the latter cases also, we may
consider such external distinctions as natural advan-
tages or the reverse, without attaching any value
to them as regards the intellectual weight of an
artistic organism.
The peculiar trait by which a musician is known as
belonging to a particular nation must, at all events,
BEETHOVEN. 3
rest upon a deeper foundation than that by which we
recognise Goethe and Schiller as Germans, or Rubens
and Rembrandt as Netherlanders, though, in the end,
we may have to accept both as springing from a
common root. To make closer researches in this
direction might prove as attractive as to investigate
the essential nature of music itse'/. If we set our-
selves the more definite task of examining the
connection of the great musician whose hundredth
birthday we are about to celebrate with the German
nation, which has just entered upon so severe a test
of its worth,* we may possibly hit upon something
which, in the way of dialectical treatment, has hitherto
had to pass for unattainable.
If, to begin with, we inquire into this connection
externally, it may not be easy to escape decep-
tive appearances. It is already so difficult to form
a true notion of a poet, that we have latterly had
to put up with the most absurd assertions from a
celebrated historian of literature about the develop-
ment of Shakespeare's genius ; and we must therefore
not be surprised to meet with still greater aberrations
as soon as a musician like Beethoven is to be simi-
larly treated. We can catch clearer glimpses of
1870.
4 BEETHOVEN.
Goethe's and Schiller's development, inasmuch as
\ve possess significant hints consciously given by
them ; yet such hints only reveal the course of their
aesthetic culture, which accompanied rather than
directed their artistic production. As to the actual
foundations of these, particularly the choice of
poetical subjects, we only learn that in this respect
there was more of chance than of purpose ; least of
all would it be possible to point out any tendency
connected with the course of external history,
universal or national.
With regard also to the influence of purely per-
sonal impressions of life upon the choice and shaping
of their materials, we must form conclusions with the
greatest circumspection, lest it should escape our
notice that such influence is never directly manifest,
but only in a certain sense indirectly ; so that any
process of referring a particular poetical result back
to some direct influence of actual life is utterly inad-
missible. On the other hand, our researches in this
direction yield just one sure result : that a course of
development such as theirs was open to German
poets only, indeed only to the great poets of that
noble period of German regeneration.
Now from such of Beethoven's letters as have
BEETHOVEN. C
been preserved, and the uncommonly meagre infor-
mation regarding the outer, not to speak of the inner
life of our great musician, what possible conclusion
can be drawn as to the connection of any particular
events with his musical creations, and the course
of development perceptible therein? Supposing we
had all possible information about special facts
before us, microscopically distinct, even then we
should see nothing beyond what is contained in the
account, for instance, that the master had at first
designed the " Sinfonia eroica " as an act of homage
to young General Bonaparte and inscribed his name
upon the title-page ; and that he had subsequently
struck out the name, when he heard that Bonaparte
had made himself Emperor.
None of our poets has ever designated the ten-
dency connected with one of his principal works in
so marked a manner : yet what aid can such a plain
indication give us in judging of one of the most
wonderful of musical creations? Can it explain a
single bar of that score ? Is it not sheer folly to think
seriously of making such an attempt? I believe the
most positive information we may get about the man
Beethoven will, at best, stand in the same relation to
the musician Beethoven as General Bonaparte stands
6 BEETHOVEN.
to the "Sinfonia eroica." From this point of view
the great musician must ever remain a perfect
mystery.
To solve this mystery in its way \ve shall assuredly
have to strike a different path from the one upon
which it is possible to follow Goethe's and Schiller's
productivity at least up to a certain point: and this
point, too, will become vague exactly at the place
where their productivity passes from a conscious to
an unconscious stage : i.e., where the poet no longer
settles the aesthetical form, but where the form is
determined by his intuition of the Idea.
But again : exactly on the manner of this intuition
of the Idea is based the entire difference between
poet and musician ; and for clearness' sake, we had
better turn at once to a deeper investigation of the
problem now touched.
If a plastic artist be compared with a musician,
the diversity referred to is obvious ; a poet stands
between the two in such wise that as far as he is
consciously constructing he leans towards the plastic
artist, whilst he comes in contact with the musician
in the obscure region of his unconsciousness.
Goethe had so strong an inclination for the plastic
arts that at one important period of his life he was
BEETHOVEN. 7
prone to consider himself actually destined to
practise them, and throughout his life he was in-
clined to look upon his poetical labours as in some
sort an expedient compensating for the frustrated
career of a painter: his consciousness was directed
towards the visible world. Whereas Schiller {ound
much greater attraction in the exploration of that
basis of inner consciousness which lies altogether
apart from the visible world, the "thing per se" of
Kant's philosophy, the study of which occupied him
exclusively during the chief period of his higher
development.
The point at which the two great minds met lay
exactly where, starting from either extreme, the
poet reaches self-consciousness. They met also in
their notions (Ahnung*) of the essential nature of
music ; only that Schiller's view was profounder than
Goethe's ; the latter, in accordance with his whole
tendency, took up the pleasing, plastically sym-
metrical element of artistic music, in regard to
which music presents some analogy to architecture.
Whereas Schiller had a firmer grasp of the problem ;
and his conclusions, with Goethe's assent, came to
this : that the epic inclines towards plastic art, where-
* Spiritual sense, foreboding.
8 BEETHOVEN.
as the drama tends towards music. The fact that
Schiller was happier in the Drama proper, whereas
Goethe showed unmistakable preference to epic pro-
duction, coincides with the above estimate of the two
poets.
But Schopenhauer was the first to perceive and
point out with philosophical clearness the proper
position of music with reference to the other fine
arts, inasmuch as he awards to music a nature
entirely different from that of poetic or plastic art,
He starts from the surprise we all feel that music
speaks a language immediately intelligible to each
of us without the mediation of intellectual concep-
tions, in which respect it differs~entirelyTrom poetry,
the sole materials of which are concepts serving to
transmit the idea. According to the philosopher's
lucid and convincing definition, the Ideas of the
world and its essential phenomena are in a Platonic
sense the object of the fine arts in general ; whilst the
poet brings these Ideas home to our consciousness
by the use of rational concepts in a manner peculiar
to his art, Schopenhauer believes it imperative to
recognise in music itself an Idea of the world, since
whosoever could completely elucidate music, or rather
translate it into rational concepts, would at the same
BEETHOVEN. 9-
time have produced a philosophy explaining the
world.
Schopenhauer puts forth this hypothetical elucida-
tion as a paradox, seeing that music cannot, properly
speaking, be explained by concepts at all. Yet r
on the other hand, he furnishes the sole sufficient
material for a more extended illustration of the
correctness of his profound view ; to which, probably,,
he did not apply himself more closely, as he, a lay-
man, was not sufficiently master of and familiar with
the art ; and, moreover, as he could not refer his-
knowledge of it definitely enough to an understand-
ing of the works of that musician who first revealed
to the world the deepest mysteries of music ; for it
is impossible to estimate Beethoven exhaustively as-
long as Schopenhauer's profound paradox is not
correctly explained and solved.*
I shall be able to make the best use of the
materials placed at our disposal by the philosopher,
if I begin with one of his observations, in which he
says that he does not wish to have the idea which
follows from the cognition of relations taken as
though it represented the essential nature of "the
thing per se" but rather as the revelation of the
* Supplement ii.
10 BEETHOVEN.
objective Character of things therefore still their
phenomena only.
" And we should not comprehend even that Char-
acter," continues Schopenhauer in the passage in
question, " if the essential nature of things were
not otherwise known to us, at least indistinctly and
by feeling. For the essential nature of things can-
not be understood from the Idea, nor indeed from
any objective cognition whatsoever ; hence it would
eternally remain a mystery if we had not access to
it from a totally different side. Only inasmuch as
every cognisant thing is at the same time an indi-
vidual and therefore a part of nature, does access to
the interior of nature stand open, in its own self-con-
sciousness, wherein the inner side of nature is most
immediately manifest, and reveals itself as Will."*
Now, if hereunto we add that which Schopenhauer
demands as the condition for the entrance of the
Idea into our consciousness, i.e. "a temporary pre-
ponderance of the intellect over the will, or physio-
logically considered, a strong excitation of the
perceptive cerebral activity, free from ail excitation
of the inclinations or passions," we have only still
* "Schopenhauer:" Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, ii. 3d.
edit. 415.
BEETHOVEN. I I
further to take a firm hold of the elucidation follow-
ing this, viz.: that our consciousness has two sides,
partly consciousness of one's own self, which is the
Will i partly a consciousness of other things, and in
the latter case primarily perceptive cognition of the
outer world apprehension of objects. " Now the
more one side of the entire consciousness comes for-
ward, so much does the other recede." *
Upon closer examina'ion of what has here been
quoted from Schopenhauer's main work, it will ap-
pear evident that musical conception, as it can have
nothing in common with the apprehension of an Idea
(for that is throughout tied to the perceptive cogni-
tion of the world), can only have its origin on that side
of consciousness which Schopenhauer designates as
introverted. But as the introverted side has to
recede entirely, for the time being, if the entrance
of the purely cognitive subject into its functions (i.e. y
the apprehension of Ideas) is to be promoted, it
follows, on the other hand, that the capacity of the
intellect to apprehend the true Character of things is
alone explicable from this introverted side of con-
sciousness.
And, again, if this consciousness is the conscious-
* " Schopenhauer : " Die Welt als Wille und Vor.stellun<< I 'tit
38 BEETHOVEN.
genius. The peculiar nature of this relationship
is disclosed by a striking feature in Beethoven's
behaviour towards Haydn. Beethoven would not
recognise Haydn as his teacher, though the latter
was generally taken for such, and he even suffered
injurious expressions of youthful arrogance to escape
him about Haydn. It seems as though he felt
himself related to Haydn like one born a man to a
childish elder. As regards form he agreed with his
teacher, but the unruly daemon of his inner music,
fettered by that form, impelled him to a disclosure of
his power, which, like everything else in the doings
of the gigantic musician, could only appear incom-
prehensibly rough.
Of his meeting with Mozart it is related that he
jumped up from the piano in ill-humour after having
played a Sonata to that master, and then, to make
himself better known, asked permission to improvise;
which, we are informed, he did with such effect upon
Mozart, that the latter said to his friends : " The
world will hear something from that young one."
This would have been an utterance of Mozart's at
a time when he was well aware that he himself was
maturing: towards a development of his genius, the
proper consummation of which had hitherto been
BEETHOVEN. 39
retarded by unprecedented deviations, under the
pressure of a wretchedly laborious musical career.
We know how he looked forward to his death,
approaching, alas! far too early bitterly conscious
that now, at last, he might have shown the world
what he really could do in music.
We see young Beethoven, on the other hand,
facing the world at once with that defiant tempera-
ment which, throughout his life, kept him in al-
most savage independence : his enormous self-con-
fidence, supported by haughtiest courage, at all times
prompted him to defend himself from the frivolous
demands made upon music by a pleasure-seeking
world. He had to guard a treasure of immeasurable
richness against the importunities of effeminate taste.
He was the soothsayer of the innermost world of
tones, and he had to act as such in the very forms in
which music was displaying itself as a merely divert-
ing art.
Thus he ever resembles one truly possessed ;
for to him may be applied Schopenhauer's saying of
the musician in general: "he expresses the highest
wisdom in a language his reason does not under-
stand."
The element ot " Reason " in his art Beethoven
40 BEETHOVEN.
encountered in the spirit which had furthered the
formal erection of its external scaffolding. And it was
rather a meagre " reason " that addressed him from
the architectural scaffolding of these sections, when
he heard how even the great masters of his youth
proceeded by trite repetitions of phrases and for-
mulas, by accurately divided antithesis of piano and
forte, with grave introductions of so and so many
bars according to prescription, through the indis-
pensable portals of so and so many semi-cadences
towards the beatifying noise of the final close.
That was the " reason " that had constructed the
operatic Aria, dictated the mode of stringing operatic
pieces together, the ''reason" by which Haydn had
fettered his genius to the counting of the pearls on
his rosary. For with Palestrina's music religion
had vanished from the Church, ^whilst the artificial
formalism of Jesuitical practice counterformed re-
ligion and, together with it, music. Thus the same
Jesuitical style of architecture of the last two cen-
turies covers the noble and venerable Rome. Thus
the glorious painting of Italy became dulcet and
effeminate ; thus, under the same guidance, originated
"classical" French poetry; in the spiritless regula-
tions of which one might find an eloquent analogy
I'.EKTHOVEN. 41
to the rules of construction pertaining to the operatic
Aria and the Sonata.
We know that it was "the German spirit," so much
feared and hated in Ultramontane quarters, which
everywhere, and in the sphere of art too, stood up
against this artificially conducted corruption of the
spirit of European peoples, and saved it.
In other spheres we have honoured a Lessing,
Goethe, Schiller, as having rescued us from that
corruption ; and it is to-day our task to show
with reference to this musician, Beethoven, that as
he spoke in the purest language to all men, the
German spirit has through him redeemed the spirit
of humamtj; from deep ignominy. For inasmuch as
he again raised music, that had been degraded to a
merely diverting art, to the height of its sublime
calling, he has led us to understand the nature of that
art, from which the world explains itself to every
consciousness as distinctly as the most profound
-*w .
philosophy could explain it to a thinker V?ll versed
in abstract conceptions. And the relation of the great
Beethoven to the German nation is based upon this
alone; which we shall now try to elucidate by special
relerence to distinctive features of his life and works.
Nothing can be more instructive as to an artist'f
42 BEETHOVEN.
method of procedure, compared with construction
according to conceptions of abstract reason, than
a true picture of the course followed by Beethoven's
genius. If he had consciously transformed or over-
thrown the external forms of music he found extant,
that would have been acting according to reason;
but there is not a trace of this. There never was
an artist who speculated less about his art than
Beethoven. But the above-mentioned rough vehem-
ence of his human nature shows how he felt the
bann these forms laid upon his genius with a sense of
personal suffering, almost as great as that which he
felt under the pressure of any other conventionality.
Still, his reaction in this matter consisted solely in
the haughty, free development of his inner genius,
which even these forms could not fetter. He never
altered any of the extant forms of instrumental
music on prin ^ >\e ; the same structure can be traced
in his last Sonatas, quartets, symphonies, &c., as un-
mistakably as in his first. But compare these works
with one another : place the eighth symphony in F
major beside the second in D, and wonder at the
entirely new world, almost in precisely the same
form ! Here again is apparent the peculiarity of the
German nature, which is inwardly so richly and
BEETHOVEN. 43
deeply endowed, that it leaves its impress upon every
form, remodels the form from within, and thus
escapes the necessity of externally overthrowing it.
So Germans are not revolutionaries, but reformers ;
and thus they are enabled to retain a richer variety
of forms for the manifestation of their inner nature
than other nations. This deep inner fountain
appears exhausted among the French, who, troubled
by the external forms of their affairs, both in the state
and in art, fancy themselves forced to destroy these
forms, and apparently take it for granted that new
and more comfortable ones would then arise spon-
taneously. Thus, curiously enough, they continually
rebel against their own nature ; which does not ap-
pear deeper than is expressed by those very forms
that so trouble them.
On the other hand, no harm has accrued to the
German spirit by the fact that our mediaeval poetical
literature was nourished by transcriptions of French
poems of chivalry: the inner depth of Wolfram von
Kschenbach formed everlasting types of poesy from
materials which, in the original form, are preserved
as mere curiosities. In like manner we adopted the
forms of Roman and Greek culture, reproduced the
classic mode of speech and versification, we contrived
44 BEETHOVEN.
to acquire and succeeded in acquiring the antique
manner of looking at things whilst expressing our
own innermost spirit thereby.
Thus also, we received music with all its forms
from the Italians, and what we made of them is seen
in the incommensurable works of Beethoven's genius.
It would be a foolish undertaking to attempt to
explain these works. Taking count of them in their
proper order we may note, with ever increasing
distinctness, how the genius of music permeates the
musical forms. It is as though in the works of
Beethoven's predecessors we saw a painted " trans-
parency" by daylight; a picture that in drawing
and colour cannot stand against the work of a true
painter; belonging to a lower form, rightly looked
down upon by those who know as a pseudo work
of art fit to adorn festivals, to embellish a princely
table, to entertain luxurious company, &c. ; whilst
the Virtuoso placed his artistic dexterity, like the
light intended for the illumination of the picture,
before instead of behind it. Now Beethoven transfers
this picture into the silence of night, between the
world of phenomena and the deep inner nature of all
things, and he places the light of the clairvoyant
behind the picture ! and it revives in wondrous wise.
BEETHOVEN. 4$
and a second world stands before us, of which the
greatest masterpiece of a Raphael can give no inti-
mation.
The might of the musician cannot be grasped
otherwise than through the idea of magic. As-
suredly it is an enchanted state we fall into when
listening to a genuine work of Beethoven's ; in
all parts and details of the piece, that to sober
senses look like a complex of technical means cun-
ningly contrived to fulfil a form, we now perceive a
ghostlike animation, an activity here most delicate,
there appalling, a pulsation of undulating joy, longing
fear, lamentation and ecstasy, all of which again seem
to spring from the profoundest depths of our own
nature. For the feature in Beethoven's musical pro-
ductions which is so particularly momentous for the
history of art is this : that here every technical detail,
by means of which for clearness' sake the artist places
himself in a conventional relation to the external
A
world, is raised to the highest significance^ of a
spontaneous effusion. I have already said elsewhere
that there are no accessories here, no " framing " of
/ o
a melody ; every part in the accompaniment, each
rhythmical note, indeed each rest, everything be-
comes Melody.
46 BEETHOVEN.
It is quite impossible to avoid falling into an
ecstatic tone when speaking of the true nature of
Beethoven's music.
Now as we have already, under the philosopher's
guidance, sought to gain closer insight into the true
nature of music in general (by which we meant
Beethoven's music in particular), we had better steer
clear of the impossible, and turn to Beethoven in
person as the focus of the rays that light up his
world of wonders.
Let us examine whence Beethoven derived his
power or rather, as the mystery of natural endow-
ment must remain veiled, and we are bound to
accept its existence from its effects without further
question, let us try to make out by what peculiarity
of his personal character, and by what moral impulses
the great musician was enabled to concentrate his
power, so as to produce that incommensurable effect
which Constitutes his artistic achievement.
WilU-iaVe seen that any assumption that the
growth of his artistic impulses had been led by
some process of abstract reasoning should be dis-
carded. On the contrary, we shall have to look
solely to the manly strength of character, the in-
ij ti nice of which upon the expansion of the master's
BEETHOVEN. 47
genius we have already touched upon. We brought
Beethoven into comparison with Haydn and Mozart.
If we consider the lives of these two and contrast
them, we shall find a transition from Haydn through
Mozart to Beethoven with regard to the externals oi
life. Haydn was and remained a prince's* atten-
dant, providing, as a musician, for the entertainment
of his master, who was fond of display ; temporary
interruptions, such as his visits to London, changed
but little in the practice of his art, for in London
also he remained a musician recommended to and
paid by men of rank. Submissive and devout, he
retained the peace of a kind-hearted, cheerful dis-
position to a good old age ; the eye only that looks
at us from his portrait is filled with gentle melan-
choly. Mozart's life, on the contrary, was an inces-
sant struggle for an undisturbed and secure existence
such as he found it so peculiarly difficult to attain.
Caressed when a child by half Europe, the youth
found every gratification of his lively desires impeded
in a manner akin to positive oppression, and fi;om his
entrance into man's estate he sickened n^ ierably
towards an early death. He finds musical servitude
with a princely master unbearable, he gives concerts
* Prince Esterhazy's.
48 BEETHOVEN.
and "academies" with an eye to the general public,
and his fugitive earnings are sacrificed to the petty
enjoyments of life.
If Haydn's Prince continuously demanded new
entertainment, Mozart was none the less compelled
to provide novelties day by day to attract \X\z public ;
fugitive conception, and ready execution acquired by
immense practice, will, in the main, account for the
character of both their works. Haydn wrote his
noblest masterpieces in old age, when he enjoyed the
comforts of a foreign as well as a home reputation.
But Mozart never attained that : his finest works
were sketched between the exuberance of the
moment and the anxiety of the coming hour. Thus
a remunerative attendance on some prince, as a
medium for a life more favourable to artistic pro-
duction, continually hovered before his soul. What
his emperor withholds, a king of Prussia offers :
Mozart remains " true to his emperor," and perishes
in misery.
If B' ^i-Vioven had made his choice of life after cool
delibe ro '.on, keeping his two great predecessors in
view, he could not have gone surer than he did in
fact go under the naive guidance of his natural
character. It is astonishing to observe how every-
BEETHOVEN. 49
thing here was decided by the powerful instinct of
nature. This instinct speaks plainly in Beethoven's
shrinking from a manner of life akin to Haydn's.
A glance at young Beethoven was probably suffi-
cient to deter any prince from the whim of making
him his Capellmeister. But the peculiar complexion
of his character appears more remarkable in those
of its features which preserved him from a fate such
as Mozart's.
Like Mozart, placed \\ithout means in an utilitarian
world, that rewards the Beautiful only inasmuch as
it flatters the senses, and wherein the Sublime re-
mains altogether without response, Beethoven could
not at first gain the world's suffrage by the Beautiful.
A glance at his face and constitution would make
it sufficiently clear that beauty and effeminacy were
almost synonymous to his mind. The world of phe-
nomena had scanty access to him. His piercing eye,
almost uncanny, perceived in the outer world nothjj: ~
VT~
but vexatious disturbances of his inner life, jnd to
ward them off was almost his sole rapport with that
world. So the expression of his face became spas-
modic : the spasm of defiance holds this nose, this
mouth at a tension that can never relax to smiles,
but only expand to enormous laughter. It used to be
D
50 BKIiTIIOVtN.
held as a physiological axiom that for high intel-
lectual endowments a large brain should be enclosed
in a thin delicate skull, to facilitate an immediate
cognition of external things ; nevertheless, upon
the inspection of his remains some years ago, we
saw, in conformity with the entire skeleton, a skull
of altogether unusual thickness and firmness. Thus
nature guarded a brain of excessive delicacy, so that
it might look inwards, and carry on in undisturbed
repose the world contemplation of a great heart.
This supremely robust constitution enclosed and pre-
served an inner world of such transparent delicacy,
that, if left defenceless to the rough handling of the
outer world, it would have dissolved gently and evapo-
rated, like Mozart's tender genius of light and love.
Now let any one try to realise how such a being
must have regarded the world from within so massive
a frame !
'>Assu r edly the inner impulses of that man's Will
cduld v-never, or but indistinctly, modify the manner
in which he apprehended the outer world ; they
were too violent, and also too gentle, to cling to
the phenomena upon which his glance fell only in
timorous haste, and finally with the mistrust felt
by one constantly dissatisfied. Nothing involved
.
BEETHOVKN. 51
him in that transient delusion which could entice
Mozart forth from his inner world to search after
external enjoyment. A childish delight in the amuse-
ments of a great and gay town could hardly touch
Beethoven ; the impulses of his Will were too strong
to find the slightest satisfaction in such light motley
pursuits. If his inclination to solitude was nourished
hereby, that inclination, again, coincided with the
independence he was destined for. A wonderfully
sure instinct guided him in this particular respect
and became the mainspring of the manifestations
of his character. No cognition of reason could have
directed him better than the irresistible bent of his
instinct. That which led Spinoza to support himself
by polishing lenses, which filled Schopenhauer with
that constant anxiety to keep his little inheritance
intact and determined his entire outer life, and which
indeed accounts for apparently inexplicable traits of
his character i.e., the discernment that the veracity
of all philosophical investigations is seriously en-
dangered when there is any need of earning money
by scientific labour : that fostered Beethoven's de-
fiance of the world, his liking for solitude, and the
almost coarse predilections shown in his manner of
life.
52 BEETHOVEN.
In point of fact Beethoven did support himself by
the proceeds of his musical labours. But as nothing
tempted him to strive for a pleasant life, there was
less need for rapid, superficial work, or for conces-
sions to a taste that could only be gratified by " the
pleasing." The more he thus lost connection with
the outer world, the clearer was his inward vision.
The surer he felt of his inner wealth, the more con-
fidently did he make his demands outwards; and he
actually required from his friends and patrons that
they should no longer pay him for his works, but so
provide for him that he might work for himself
regardless of the world. And it actually came to
pass, for the first time in the life of a musician,
that a few well-disposed men of rank pledged
themselves to keep Beethoven independent in the
sense desired. Arrived at a similar turning-point
in his life, Mozart perished, prematurely exhausted.
But the great kindness conferred upon Beethoven,
although he did not enjoy it long without inter-
ruption or diminution, nevertheless laid the founda-
tion to the peculiar harmony, which was hence-
forth apparent in the master's life, no matter how
strangely constituted. He felt himself victorious,
and knew that he belonged to the world only as a
BEETHOVEN. 53
free man. The world had to take him as he was.
He treated his aristocratic benefactors despotically,
and nothing could be got from him save what he
felt disposed to give, and at his own time.
But he never felt inclined for anything save
that which solely and continually occupied him : the
magician's disport with the shapes of his inner world.
For the outer world now became extinct to him ; not
that blindness robbed him of its view, but because
deafness finally kept it at a distance from his hearing.
The ear was the only organ through which the outer
world could still reach and disturb him ; it had long
since faded to his eye. What did the enraptured
dreamer see, when, fixedly staring, with open eyes,
he wandered through the crowded streets of Vienna,
solely animated by the waking of his inner world of
tones ?
The beginning and increase of trouble in his ear
pained him dreadfully, and induced profound melan-
choly, but after complete deafness had set in, no
particular complaints were heard from him ; none
whatever about his incapacity to listen to musical
performances ; the intercourse of daily life only,
which never had attracted him much, was rendered
more difficult, and he now avoided it the more.
54 BEETHOVEN.
A musician without hearing ! could a blind painter
be imagined ?
But we know of a blind Seer. Tiresias, to whom
the phenomenal world was closed, but who, with
inward vision, saw the basis of all phenomena, and
the deaf musician who listens to his inner harmonies
undisturbed by the noise of life, who speaks from the
depths to a world that has nothing more to say to
him now resembles the seer.
Thus genius, delivered from the impress of external
things, exists wholly in and for itself. What wonders
would have been disclosed to one who could have
seen Beethoven with the vision of Tiresias! A
world, walking among men, the world per se as a
walking man !
And now the musician's eye was lighted up from
within. He cast his glance upon pheno'mena that
answered in wondrous reflex, illuminated by his
inner light. The essential nature of things now
again speaks to him, and he sees things displayed
in the calm light of beauty. Again he understands
the forest, the brook, the meadow^ the blue^sky,
the gay throng of men, the pair of lovers, the song
of birds, the flight of clouds, the roar of storms,
the beatitude of blissfully moving repose. All
BEETHOVLN. 55
he perceives and constructs is permeated with that
wondrous serenity which music has gained through
him. Even the tender plaint inherent in all sounds
is subdued to a smile : the world regains the inno-
cence of its childhood. "To-day art thou with. me
in Paradise." Who does not hear the Redeemer's
word when listening to the Pastoral Symphony ?
The power of shaping the incomprehensible, the
never seen, the never experienced, in such wise thai
it becomes immediately intelligible, now grow*
apace. The delight in exercising this power becomes
humour; all the pain of existence is shattered against
the immense delight of playing with it ; Brahma,
the creator of worlds, laughs as he perceives the
illusion about himself; innocence regained plays
lightly with the sting of expiated guilt, conscience
set free banters itself with the torments it has under-
gone.
Never has an art offered the world anything so
serene as these symphonies in A and F major, and
all those works so intimately related to them which
the master produced during the divine period of his
total deafness. Their effect upon the hearer is that of
setting him free from the sense of guilt, just as their
after-effect is a feeling of "paradise lost," with which
56 BEETHOVEN.
one again turns towards the world of phenomena.
Thus these wonderful works preach repentance
and atonement in the deepest sense of a divine
revelation.
The aesthetic idea of the Sublime is alone applic-
able here: for the effect of serenity passes at
once far beyond any satisfaction to be derived from
mere beauty. The defiance of reason, proud in its
powers of cognition, is wrecked upon the charm that
subdues our entire nature: cognition flees, confessing
its error, and in the immense joy over this confession
we exult from the depth of our soul ; no matter how
seriously the fettered mien of the listener may betray
astonishment at the insufficiency of human sight and
thought in the presence of this most veritable world.
What could the world see and realise of the human
nature of the genius thus raised above and beyond
the world ? What could the eye of a man of the
world perceive of him ? Assuredly nothing but what
was easily misunderstood, just as he himself mis-
understood the world in his dealings with it; for to
his simple great heart there was continuous contra-
diction in the world that he could only resolve
harmoniously in the sublime fields of art.
As far as his reason sought to comprehend the
BEETHOVEN. 57
world, his mind was soothed with optimistic views,
such as the visionary enthusiasm of the last century's
humanitarian tendencies had developed into a creed
held in common by the middle-class religious world.
Every feeling of doubt, which experience of life-
aroused against the correctness of that doctrine, he
fought against by loudly asserting fundamental reli-
gious maxims. His innermost self said to him : Love
is God; and accordingly he too decreed : God is Love,
Whatever touched upon these dogmas with any em-
phasis in the writings of our poets met with his ap-
probation. " Faust" always had the strongest hold of
him ; yet he held Klopstock, and many a weaker bard
of Humanitarianism, worthy of special veneration.
His morality was of the strictest domestic exclusive-
ness : a frivolous mood put him into a rage. He
certainly did not display, even to the most attentive
observer, a single trait of wit; and, in spite of Bet-
tina's sentimental fancies about Beethoven, Goethe
probably had a hard time of it in his conversations
with him.* But the same sure instinct which, as he
felt no need of luxury, led him to be frugal and
watch his income to the verge of parsimony, was also
shown in his strict religious morality ; and by virtue
* They met at Tdplitz in the summer of 1812.
5& BEETHOVEN.
of it he preserved his noblest treasure, the freedom of
his genius, from subjugation by the surrounding
world.
He lived in Vienna and knew Vienna only : that
tells its own tale.
The Austrians, who after the eradication of every
trace of German Protestantism, were educated in the
schools of Roman Jesuits, had even lost the correct pro-
nunciation of their language ; which, like the classical
names of Antiquity, was pronounced to them in an
tin-German Italianised fashion. German spirit, Ger-
man habits and ways, were explained from text-
books of Spanish and Italian origin ! A people,
joyous and gay by nature, had been drilled on the
basis of falsified history, falsified science, falsified
religion, into a species of scepticism, calculated to
undermine all clinging to the true, the genuine, and
the free ; a scepticism that in the end appeared as
downright frivolity.
Now it was this spirit which had imparted to
music, the only art cultivated in Austria, the direc-
tion and the verily degrading tendency we have
already commented upon. We have seen how
Beethoven's mighty nature protected him from this
tendency, and we may now recognise in him a
BEETHOVEN. 59
similar power to aid us energetically in warding off
frivolity in life and mind. Baptized and brought up
.as a Catholic, the entire spirit of German Protestant-
ism lived in his disposition. And that spirit also
led him as an artist into the path where he was
to meet the only colleague in his art, before whom
he might bow reverentially, and whom he could greet
as a revelation of the profoundest mystery of his
own nature. If Haydn passed for the teacher of
his youth, the great Sebastian Bach became a guide
for the man in the mighty development of hi?
artistic life.
Bach's wondrous work became the Bible of his
faith ; he read in it, and forgot the world of sound!;,
which he heard no longer. There he found the
enigma of his profoundest dream, which the poor
Leipzig precentor had once written down as the
eternal symbol of another and a new world. These
were the same enigmatically entwined lines and
marvellously intricate characters, in which the s-stc s^t
of the world and its shapes had been seen in the
sheen of light by the great Albrecht Dtirer; the
charmed book of the necromancer who illumines the
microcosm with the light of the macrocosm. What
only the eye of the German spirit could behold, and
60 BEETHOVEN.
its ear only could hear, what, from inmost percep-
tion, forced that spirit to irresistible protestation!
against alien things, that Beethoven read clearly and
distinctly in its saintliest book, and became himself
a saint.
But how, again, in actual life, would such a saint
stand with regard to his own sanctity, seeing that
he was indeed enlightened "to speak the highest
wisdom, but in a language which his reason did not
understand " ?
Must not his intercourse with the world resemble
the condition of one who, awakening from deepest
sleep, in vain endeavours to recall his blissful dream ?
We may assume a similar condition to obtain in the
religious Saint, when, driven by dire necessity, he
applies himself in some degree to the affairs of
common life ; only, in the very distress of life, a saint
of religion clearly recognises the atonement for a sin-
ful existence., and, in the patient endurance of sad
/
, he enthusiastically grasps the means of
redemption ; whilst that sainted Seer accepts the
sense of an atonement as though it simply meant the
endurance of pain, and pays the debt of existence
solely as a sufferer. And the error of the optimist is
thereupon revenged by enhanced sensitiveness, and a
BEETHOVEN. 6 1
corresponding increase of suffering. Every want of
feeling, every instance of selfishness or hardness of
heart, such as he meets with again and again, incense
him as an incomprehensible corruption of that
original goodness of man to which he clings with
religious faith. Thus he continually falls from the
paradise of his inner harmony into a hell of fearfully
discordant existence, and this discord again he can
only resolve harmoniously as an artist.
If we wish to picture to ourselves a day in the life
of our Saint, one of the master's own wonderful
pieces may serve as a counterpart. Only, to avoid
deceiving ourselves, we shall have to adhere strictly
to the mode of procedure by which we analogically
applied the phenomena of dreams to throw light
upon the origin of music, without ever identifying
the one with the other. I shall choose, then, to
illustrate such a genuine " Beethoven day " by the
light of its inmost occurrences, his great string-
quartet in C-sharp minor : premising that if we rest
content to recall the tone-poem to memory, an illus-
tration of the sort may perhaps prove possible, at
least up to a certain degree ; whereas it would hardly
be feasible during an actual performance. For,
whilst listening to the work, we are bound to eschew
62 BEETHOVEN.
any definite comparisons, being solely conscious
of an immediate revelation from another world.
Even then, however, the animation of the picture
in its several details, has to be left to the reader's
fancy, and an outline sketch must therefore suffice.
The longer introductory Adagio, than which pro-
bably nothing more melancholy has been expressed
in tones, I would designate as the awakening on
the morn of a day that throughout its tardy course
shall fulfil not a single desire : * not one. None the
less it is a penitential prayer, a conference with God
in the faith of the eternally good. The eye turned
inwards here, too, sees the comforting phenomena
it alone can perceive (Allegro |), in which the
longing becomes a sweet, tender, melancholy disport
with itself,-f the inmost hidden dream-picture awakens
as the loveliest reminiscence. And now, in the short
transitional Allegro Moderato, it is as though the
Master, conscious of his strength, puts himself in
position to work his spells ; with renewed power \
he now practises his magic (Andante f) in bann-
ing a lovely figure, the witness of pure heavenly
innocence, so that he may incessantly enrapture
* " Den Tag zu sehen, der mir in seinem Lauf
Nicht einen Wunsch erflillen \vird, niclit Einen." Faust.
+ Ein wehmuthig holdes Spiel.
BEETHOVEN. 03
himself by its ever new and unheard-of transforma-
tions, induced by the refraction of the rays of light
he casts upon it. We may now (Presto f) fancy
him, profoundly happy from within, casting an
inexpressibly serene glance upon the outer world ;
and, again, it stands before him as in the Pastoral
Symphony. Everything is luminous, reflecting his
inner happiness. It is as though he were listening
to the very tones emitted by the phenomena, that
move, aerial and again firm, in rhythmical dance
before him. He contemplates Life, and appears to
reflect how he is to play a dance for Life itself;
(Short Adagio f) a short, but troubled medita-
tion, as though he were diving into the deep
dream of his soul. He has again caught sight of
the inner side of the world ; he wakens, and strikes
the strings for a dance, such as the world has never
heard (Allegro Finale). It is the World's own
dance : wild delight, cries of anguish, love's ecstasy,
highest rapture, misery, rage ; voluptuous now,
and sorrowful ; lightning's quiver, storm's roll ; and
high above the gigantic musician ! banning and
compelling all things, proudly and firmly wielding
them from whirl to whirlpool, to the abyss. He
laugh? 9 f himself; for the incantation was, after all,
64 BEETHOVEN.
but play to him. Thus night beckons. His day is
done.
It is not possible to consider the man, Beethoven,
in any sort of light, without at once having recourse
to the wonderful musician, by way of elucidation.
We noted how the instinctive tendency of his life
coincided with a tendency towards the emancipation
of his art ; he could not be a servant of luxury, and
his music had to be cleared of all traces of sub-
ordination to a frivolous taste. Moreover, as to the
way in which his optimistic religious faith went
hand in hand with the instinctive proclivity towards
widening the sphere of his art, we have testimony
of the noblest simplicity in the Choral Symphony,
the genesis of which it now Behoves us to consider
more closely, so as to throw light upon the wonderful
connection between the designated fundamental
tendencies in the nature of our Saint.
The J4e^caJ_jrmpulsewhich led Beethoven's rea-
son to construct the Idea of the Good Man, guided
him in the quest of the melody proper to this Good
Man. He wished to restore to melody that purity
which it had lost in the hands of trained musicians.
One has but to recall the Italian operatic melody of
the last century, to perceive how curiously vapid a
BEETHOVEN.
tone-spectre, exclusively devoted to fashion and its
ends, that melody was. By it, and through its use,
music had become deeply degraded, so that men's
eager taste constantly hankered after some new
tune, as the tune of yesterday was no longer fit to be
heard to-day. Yet, in the main, instrumental music,
too, drew its sustenance from that sort of melody ;
and we have already seen how it was made use of
for the ends of a social life, anything rather than
noble.
Haydn forthwith took up the sturdy and jolly dance-
tunes of the people, which, as is sufficiently obvious,
he often appropriated from the dances of the neigh-
bouring Hungarian peasants. So far he remained
in a lower sphere, closely confined within the limits
of its local character. But from what sphere was
melody to be taken, if it was to bear a noble,
enduring character? For those peasants' dance- l]
tunes of Haydn's were chiefly attractive as piquant
oddities ; they could not be expected to form a
purely human art-type, valid for all times. Yet it
was impossible to derive such melody from the
higher sphere of society, for that sphere was ruled
by the vicious, cockered, curlicued melody of the
opera-singer and ballet-dancer.
E
*6 BEL l HO \ EN.
Beethoven, too, took Haydn's course; only he was
no longer content to treat popular dance-tunes so as
to furnish entertainment at a princely table, but he
played them, in an ideal sense, to the people them-
selves. It was now a Scotch, then a Russian, or an
Old French people's-tune, in which he recognised that
nobility of innocence he dreamt of, and at whose feet
he did homage with his whole art. And with an
Hungarian peasant's-dance he played (in the last
movement of his A-major symphony) a tune to all
nature, so that whoever should see her dancing to it
might deem he saw a new planet arise before his
very eyes in the prodigious circling vortex.
But the problem was to find the arch-type of
purity, the icfeal "good maiT^bT tKIscreed, and to
wed him to his " God is love."
One might almost trace the master upon this
1*4
track already in his " Sinfonia Eroica ; " it is as
though he meant to use the uncommonly simple
theme of the last movement, which he also carried
out elsewhere, as the groundwork for this purpose ;
but, whatever of transporting Melos he built upon
that theme, belongs rather too much to the senti-
mental Mozartian cantabile, which he expanded and
BEE1UOVEN. 6/
developed in such a peculiar way,* to serve as a type
of an achievement in the sense intended.
The trace is more distinct in the jubilant final
movement of the C-minor symphony, in which the
simple march melody, based almost entirely upon
tonic and dominant and the natural notes of horns
and trumpets, moves us so much the more by
its grand simplicity, as the preceding symphony
now appears as a protracted preparation, holding us
in suspense, like clouds, moved now by storms, now
by delicate breezes, from which at length the sun
bursts forth in full splendour.
But the C-minor symphony (we introduce this
apparent digression as important to the subject)
engages our attention as one of the rarer con-
ceptions of the master in which, from a ground of
painful agitation, passion soars upwards on a scale
of consolation, exultation, to a final outburst of
consciously triumphant joy. Here the lyric pathos
almost touches upon an ideal dramatic sphere; and,
whilst it may appear dubious whether the purity of
musical conception might not thus be impaired as
it must lead to the introduction of ideas which seem
quite alien to the spirit of music it should, on the
* See " Uber das Dirigiren."
63 BEETHOVEN.
other hand, not be overlooked that the master was
by no means led thither by any aberration of aestheti-
cal speculation, but solely by an instinct, altogether
ideal, which germinated in the true domain of music.
This instinct coincided, as we have shown at the
outset of this latter investigation, with an effort to
rescue the faith in the primitive goodness of man,
or perhaps to regain it, in the face of all protests of
experience that might be referred to mere delusion.
Those conceptions of the master's which originated
t
mainly in the spirit of sublime serenity, belonged, as
we saw above, for the most part to that period of his
beatific isolation which, after complete deafness had
set in, seems to have entirely removed him from the
world of suffering. There is, perhaps, no need to
assume a declineTolf that inner serenity on the ground
of the more painful mood, which now appears in
certain of Beethoven's most important conceptions;
for we should assuredly err were we to believe that
an artist can ever conceive save in deep serenity of
soul. The mood expressed by the conception must
therefore pertain to the idea of the world itself,
which the artist apprehends, and interprets in the
work of art. But then, as we positively assumed
that an Idea of the world is revealed in music, so the
BEETHOVEN. 69
conceiving musician must above all be taken as
himself included in that Idea ; and what he utters
is not his view of the world, but rather the world
itself, wherein weal and woe, grief and joy alternate.
The conscious doubt, also, of the man Beethoven, was\
included in this world, and thus that doubt speaks
immediately r , and in no wise as the object of reflec-
tion from within him, when he expresses the idea of
the world in: such a manner as in his ninth sym-
phony, the first movement of which certainly__dis-
plays the Idea of the world in its most appalling
light. But, on the other hand, the deliberately
regulating will of its creator especially prevails
in that work ; we meet with it openly where he
addresses the rage_ of despair that constantly
recurs after each quieting, with actually spoken
words, as with the cry of anguish emitted by one
awakening from frightful dreams ; and the ideal
sense of those words is none other than " Man is
good, for all that." Not only criticism, but unbiassed
feeling, has always taken offence at seeing the master
as it were drop from out of his music, step forth
from the magic circle he had drawn, and thus
appeal, of a sudden, to a mode of conception quite
other than the musical. This unheard-of artistic
/O BEETHOVEN.
event does, in truth, resemble the precipitous waken-
ing from a dream ; but, at the same time, we feel its
beneficent action after the uttermost fright of the
dream; for never before had a musician led us so
to realise the appalling torments of the world. It
was actually a plunge of despair, through which
the divinely naive master, fulfilled with his own
magic, entered the new world of light, in the soil
whereof bloomed the long sought, divinely sweet,
innocently pure melody of humanity.
But the master had not lost his way ; with the
regulating will, just pointed out, that led him to this
melody, we see him still remaining in the realms of
music as the Idea of the world ; for in truth, it is not
the sense of the words that takes hold of us when the
human voice enters, but the tone of the human voice
itself. Nor do the thoughts expressed in Schiller's
verses occupy us henceforth, but rather the cordial
sound of choral singing in which we feel invited to
join, as was actually done in Bach's great " Passion
music" at the entrance of the Chorale, and to partici-
pate, as congregation, in the ideal divine service. It
is quite evident that Schiller's words have only been
made to fit the main melody as best they could ;
for that melody is at first fully developed, and emitted
BEETHOVEN. 71
by instruments alone, when it inspires us with inex-
pressible emotions of joy at the "paradise regained."
The most consummate art has never produced
anything artistically more simple than that melody,
the childlike innocence of which, when it is first heard
in the most equable whisper of the bass stringed in-
struments, in unison, breathes upon us as with a
saintly breath. It now becomes the plain song (Cantus
firmus), the Chorale of the new congregation, around
\Avhich, as in the church-chorale of Sebastian Bach,
j^' i the harmonic voices form contrapuntal groups as
, r" 1 'they severally enter; there is nothing like the sweet
^ .fervour to which every newly-added voice further
animates this prototype of purest innocence, until
every embellishment, every glory of elevated feel-
ing, unites in it and around it, like the breathing
world round a finally revealed dogma of purest
love.
If we survey the progress which music has made
under Beethoven from an historical point of view, we
may briefly describe it as the attainment of a faculty
which had previously been denied to it: by virtue ol
this faculty music, from the confines of aesthetical
beaui^ strides into the sphere of the Sublime; and
in this sphere it has been released from all constraint
72 BEETHOVEN.
of traditional or conventional forms, and it completely
penetrates and animates these forms with its proper
spirit. And this achievement appears evident to
every human heart and mind by the character Beet-
hoven has imparted to the chief form of all music,
Melody: for melody has now regained the highest
natural simplicity^ as the source from which it can
be renewed and invigorated at any time, and for
any requirement, and expanded to the highest,
richest variety. And we may group all this under
one head, intelligible to every one. ^Melody, through
Beethoven, has become emancipated from the influ-
ence of fashion and fluctuating taste, and elevated
to an ever valid, purely human type. Beethoven's
.music will be understood at any time, whilst the
music of his predecessors will, for the most part,
remain intelligible only through the medium of
light thrown upon it by the history of art.
But still another advance is perceptible upon the
path in which Beethoven reached his decisively
important goal of ennobling Melody; it is. the new
significance Vocal music attained, in relation to purely
instru mental music.
That significance was hitherto alien to the forms
of mixed vocal and instrumental music.
BEETHOVEN. 75
The species of mixed vocal and instrumental
music one meets with chiefly in compositions for
the Church Service, may unhesitatingly be taken for
deteriorated vocal music, inasmuch "as the orchestra
is employed only to strengthen or to accompany
the voices. Bach's church music is only intelligible
through the chorus rk of the most
genuine Beethovenian spirit. The vocal parts are
treated entirely in that sense of "human instruments,' r
which Schopenhauer, quite correctly, wished to see
accorded to them : one does not take the text which !
is set to them in this grand sacred composition in its-
74 BEETHOVEN.
conceptional significance,* for it serves the musical
work solely as material for singing ; and it does
not disturb our musical sensations, because it in
no wise arouses concepts of reason, but rather, in
keeping with its religious character, it only leaves
upon us the impression of well-known symbolical
formularies of faith.
We are all aware that Music loses nothing of its
character even when very different words are set to
it; and this fact proves that the relation of music
to the art of poetry is an entirely illusory one; for
it holds true that when music is heard with singing
added thereto, it is not the poetical thought, which,
especially in choral pieces, can hardly be articulated
intelligibly, that is grasped by the auditor; but, at
best, only that element of it which, to the musician,
seemed suitable for music, and which his mind trans-
muted into music. A union of music with poetry
must, therefore, always result in such a subordina-
tion of the latter, that one can but be surprised
at seeing how our great poets considered and re-
considered the problem of a union of the two arts,
or actually tried to solve it. Evidently they were
enticed by the effect of music in the opera; and it
* " Seiner begrifflichen Bedeutung."
BEETHOVEN. 75
certainly appeared as though this was the sole field
upon which a solution of the problem might be looked
for.
Now, whether the expectation of our poets referred
more to the formal regularity in point of structure,
or to the power of deeply touching heart and mind
which pertains to music, it still remains obvious,
that they could have intended nothing else than
to make use of the powerful auxiliaries apparently
at hand, so as to give a more precise and incisive
expression to their poetical conceptions. It might
well appear to them that music would gladly per-
form this service, if in place of trivial opera-subjects
and opera-texts they were to supply it with son- \
genuine poetical conception. But they may ha> *
been deterred from serious attempts in this direction
by a vague but rightly deduced doubt as to whether
a poem, if combined with music, would be noticed as
such at all. On careful reflection it could not have
escaped them that in the opera, apart from the
music, the scenic occurrences only, and not the poeti-
cal thoughts explaining them, occupy the auditor's
attention and that the opera engages, alternately,
sight and hearing only. That neither the one nor
the other receptive faculty can get complete aesthe-
?6 BEETHOVEN.
tical satisfaction in the opera, obviously arises from
the fact explained above, that operatic music does
not produce that devoutly attentive state which i?
alone in keeping with music, a state wherein the eye
is depotentialised in such wise that it no longer
perceives objects with its customary intensity ; oa
the other hand, we found that, in the opera, music
touches us but superficially, excites rather than fills
us, and that accordingly we desire to see something,
but by no means to think about something; for we
are deprived of any power to think, by that very
oscillation of the desires for amusement, which at
bottom are but struggles against tedium.
After the foregoing reflections we are sufficiently
Acquainted with Beethoven's peculiar nature easily
to understand his position regarding the opera r
when he most emphatically declined ever to set
an opera-text of frivolous tendency. Ballets, shows,
fireworks, sensual love-intrigues, &c., to write
music for such he refused with horror. Give him
an entire, high-hearted, and passionate action, and
his music will permeate it completely. What poet
was to lend him a hand ? An attempt once made
brought him in contact with a dramatic situation,
that was at least free from the frivolity he hated
BEETHOVEN. 77
so much, and which moreover, by the glorification
of woman's fidelity, chimed with the master's
humanitarian dogma. Still that operatic subject
embraced so much that is alien and unassimilable
to music that, properly speaking, only the great
Overture to Leonora shows clearly what Beet-
hoven would have us understand by a drama.
Who can listen to this transporting piece of music
without feeling convinced that music also embraces
the most perfect drama? Is not the dramatic
action of the text of the opera " Leonora " an almost
repulsive dilution of the drama presented in the
Overture ? akin, perhaps, to one of Gervinus' tedious
explanatory comments on a scene of Shakespeare's?
We all feel this to be so, but we can make it clearer
by returning to the philosophical explanation of
music itself.
Music which does not represent the ideas con-
tained in the phenomena of the world, but is itself
an Idea, indeed, a comprehensive Idea of the world,
embraces the drama as a matter of course, seeing
that the drama, again, represents the only Idea of
the world adequate to music.
The drama reaches beyond the confines of poetic
art, as music reaches beyond those of other arts, the
78 BEETHOVEN.
plastic arts especially, since its effects lie solely in
the region of the Sublime. As the drama does not
describe human characters but exhibits them im-
mediately, so the motives (figures) of a piece of music
give the character of the world's phenomena in the
abstract. The movement, changes, and shape of
these figures are not only related analogically to
the Drama, but the Drama representing the Idea
can in truth be understood with perfect clearness
only through those very musical motives that thus
move, change and take shape. We might recognise
in music man's a priori qualification for constructing
the Drama in general.
As we construct the world of phenomena by the
laws of time and space which are prefigured d priori
in our brain, so, again, the conscious exhibition of
the Idea of the world in the drama would be pre-
figured by those inner laws of music, which uncon-
sciously make themselves valid in a dramatist's
mind,* just as the laws of causality are unconsciously
applied for the perception of the phenomenal world.
It was a presentiment of this that occupied our
great German poets ; and perhaps it might have
* Schiller to Goethe, Corresp. March i8th, 1796. "With me the
poetical Idea is preceded by a certain musical mt'oci."
DEETHOVEN. 79
furnished them with the mysterious key to Shakes-
peare who, on other grounds, was deemed inex-
plicable.
By no analogy with any other poet could that
mighty dramatist be grasped, and no aesthetic esti-
mate of him has, as yet, been fully established. His
dramas appear as so immediate an image of the
world, that the artist's mediation in the presentation
of the Idea is not perceptible, and can certainly not
be adduced by criticism ; wherefore, taken as the
products of a superhuman genius, they became to
our great poets (almost like wonders of nature) a
study for the discovery of the laws of their produc-
tion. How far Shakespeare stood above the poet
proper is often shown crudely enough by the
uncommon fidelity of his delineation ; for instance
when, during the quarrel between Brutus and Cassias
in Julius Caesar, the poet is simply treated as a silly
creature; whilst the supposed "Poet" Shakespeare
is nowhere to be found, save in his dramatic char-
acters.
Shakespeare, therefore, remained wholly incom-
parable, until German genius produced in Beethoven
a being that can only be analogically explained by
comparison with him.
8O BEETHOVEN.
Take Shakespeare's dramatic world with the un-
common pregnancy and distinctness of characters
that move and meet in it, compress it to get a total
impression upon your:, innermost feeling ; then take
Beethoven's world of musical motives with their irre-
sistible penetrativeness and precision, and you will
perceive that either of these worlds completely covers
the other, that each is contained in the other, though
they seem to move in entirely different spheres.-
To get a better notion of this, let us take the
Overture to Coriolanus for an example in which
Beethoven and Shakespeare come in contact on the
same subject. If we call to mind the impression left
upon us by the Coriolanus of Shakespeare's drama,
and retain such details of the complicated action
only as were impressive with regard to the chief
character, the single figure of a Coriolanus defiant will
arise before us, in conflict with an inner voice, which,
again, in the person of his mother, speaks louder and
stronger to his pride; and the dramatic development
will appear to consist in the mastering of his pride
by that voice, in the breaking of the defiance of his
extraordinarily powerful nature.
Beethoven chose for his drama these two chief
motives only, and they induce us to feel the essen-
BEETHOVEN. 5f
tial nature of those two characters more distinctly
than any conceptional presentation thereof. Now, if
we devoutly follow the movement which develops
from the juxtaposition of these motives and belongs
>olely to their musical character, and if we permit
the purely musical details which comprise the modi-
fications, the contact, the divisions, increase, and
climax of these motives, to act upon us, we shall
then be on the trace of a drama which, in its peculiar
way, contains all the complicated action and attri-
tion of lesser characters, that engage our interest
in the work of the stage-poet.* What moved us
there as an action so displayed that we almost lived
through it ourselves, we apprehend here as the in-
most kernel of that action ; for the characters there
determine the action like powers of nature; and,
similarly here, the movement is determined by the
musician's motives which are essentially identical
with those that move the characters of the poet.
Only in that sphere those, and in this sphere these
laws of expansion and motion prevail.
As we have called music the revelation of the
inmost dream-image of the world, Shakespeare might
* Beethoven's overture was written for a play entitled Coriolan by
Von Collin ; but the master was familiar with Eschenbach's translation
of Shakespeare.
? BEETHOVEN.
be taken as Beethoven dreaming on, while a wage.
Their two spheres are kept asunder by the formal
condition of the laws of perception prevailing in eacn.
It appears to follow, therefore, that the most perfect
artistic form would spring from the point whereat
the laws might touch. Now that which makes Shakes-
peare so incomprehensible, so incomparable, is the
fact that with him the forms of the drama (which
still tinged the plays of the great Calderon with
brittle conventionality, and turned them into " artist's-
work " proper) are filled by Shakespeare with such
buoyant life, that they appear taken direct and;
perforce from nature: we appear to see real men
before us, not artificially formed ones; and yet they
stand at such a wonderful distance that any real
contact with them seems as impossible as though
they were apparitions.
Now, in his relations to the formal laws of his art,
and in his free penetration of them, Beethoven was
just like Shakespeare ; and we may hope to reach the
point of contact, or of transition already touched
upon, if we again take our philosopher for a guide,,
and return to the object he aims at in his hypo-
thetical theory of dreams, the explanation of ap-
paritions. The question will turn, not on the
BEETHOVEN. 83
metaphysical, but upon the physiological explana-
tion of the so-called "second sight." *
The organ of dreams was there taken as having its
function in that part of the brain which is excited by,
impressions from the organism during deep sleep
(whilst that organism is occupied with its internal
affairs) in a manner analogous to that in which the
extroverted part of the brain directly connected with
the organs of sense, and for the time being perfectly
quiet, becomes excited when awake by impressions of
the external world. The dream-communication con-
ceived by virtue of that inner organ could only be
transmitted allegorically by a second dream just
before waking, since, during the preparation for the
final wakening of the extroverted brain, the form of
cognition of the world of phenomena, time and space,
had to be applied, and in consequence an image was
constructed in every respect akin to the common
experiences of life. We then compared the musi-
cian's work to the vision of a somnambulist who had
reached the stage of clairvoyance ; as though the
musical work appeared to us like the immediate
image of the somnambulist's innermost dream, which
is now communicated to the outer world, during the
* Supplement i.
84 BEETHOVEN.
most excited state of clairvoyance ; and we dis-
covered the channel through which this communica-
tion takes place in the direction of the origin and
the formation of the world of sounds.
By the side of this physiological phenomenon of
somnambulistic clairvoyance, which we took up by-
way of analogy, let us now place the phenomenon of
apparitions ; and in doing so let us again make use
of Schopenhauer's hypothetical explanation ; accord-
ing to which it is a clairvoyance which takes place
whilst the brain is awake ; i.e., he asserts that it takes
place in consequence of a depotentialisation of the
waking sight ; which sight, being as it were under a
veil, is employed by the inner impulse to convey a
communication to consciousness (which is on the very
verge of waking) in order to exhibit the image that
appeared to it in the deepest dream. The image
thus projected from the interior before the eye in no
wise pertains to the real phenomenal ivorld ; yet it
lives before the spirit-seer with all the indicia of an
actual being. By the side of this projection of the
image beheld by the inner Will, and Which only in
the rarest and most extraordinary cases it succeeds
in holding up to the eyes of one awake, let us now
place Shakespeare ; let us take him as one who sees
BEETHOVEN. 85
and banns apparitions, one who knows how to take
the shapes of men of all times from his innermost
vision, and place them before his own and our eyes
'so that they shall seem actually alive.
As soon as we have mastered this analogy and its
fullest consequences we may designate Beethoven,
whom we compared to a clairvoyant Somnambulist,
as the active fundament,* the motive power, of
Shakespeare seeing apparitions : iliat which brings
forth Beethoven's melodies, also projects the spirit-
shapes of Shakespeare ; they will permeate one
another, and unite into one identical being, if we
allow the musician, when he enters the world of
sound, simultaneously to enter the world of light.
And this might happen in a manner analogous to
the physiological occurrence which, on the one hand,
becomes the basis of apparitions and, on the other,
produces somnambulistic clairvoyance ; and with
regard to which it is to be assumed that an inner
excitation penetrates the brain in an outward direc-
tion (being the reverse of what takes place in a
waking state), and thus, passing outward, touches
upon the organs of sense and induces them to attest
outwards that which, as Object, has made its way
* "Den wirkenden Untergrund des geUterseheuden Shakespeares.'
86 BEETHOVEN.
from the interior. Now we have also affirmed the
indisputable fact that when sympathetically listen-
ing to music our vision is depotentialised in such
wise that objects are no longer perceived distinctly :
accordingly this would be the state induced by the
inmost world of dreams, which, depotentialising the
vision, renders the phenomena of apparitions possible.
This hypothetical explanation of an otherwise in-
explicable physiological occurrence can be employed
in various ways to solve the artistic problem now
before us, and with the same result in each case.
By the complete awakening of the inner organ of
music Shakespeare's spirit-shapes would be made to
speak in tones : Beethoven's musical motives would
inspire the depotentialised vision clearly to recognise
those spirit-shapes ; and these shapes again would
now appear as though they were Beethoven's musical
motives embodied, and actually moving before the
clairvoyant eye. In the one as well as in the other of
these essentially identical cases, the enormous power
which here, contrary to natural law, moves from
within towards the exterior (in the sense of the
formation of spirit-phenomena already dwelt upon),
must spring from some deepest need ; and this need
would probably prove identical with that which in
BEETHOVEN. $7
common life produces the cry of anguish of one
suddenly waking from an oppressive vision of deep
sleep ; only that here in an extraordinary, prodigious
case, a case shaping the life of the genius of human-
ity, the need conducts to a new world of clearest
cognit/on and highest capacity, that could not have
been laid open in any other way than through such
an awakening.
But we have witnessed an awakening caused by
deepest need in that remarkable leap from instru-
mental into vocal music, in Beethoven's ninth sym-
phony, which has remained such a stumbling-block
to ordinary aesthetical criticism, and from which we
started upon our extensive investigation. This leap
causes us to feel that there was a certain excess, a
violent necessity for a discharge outwards, entirely
comparable to the impulse to waken from a deepiy
disquieting dream ; and it is significant for the art-
genius of humanity that an artistic deed was called
forth by that impulse through which a new power,
the capability of generating the highest work of art,
was imparted to it.
We may surmise that that work of art would be
the most complete Drama, reaching far beyond the
work of poetic art proper. Having recognised the
88 BEETHOVEN.
identity of Shakespeare's drama with Beethoven's,
we may be permitted to conclude that the work of
art we have in mind would bear the same relation
to the " opera " as a Shakespearian piece to a " drama
of literature," i.e., a printed play, or a symphony of
Beethoven's to an operatic piece.
Our estimation of that remarkable leap from
instrumental into vocal music, should not be dis-
turbed by the fact that in the course of his ninth
symphony, Beethoven simply returns to the regular^
choral cantata with orchestra. We have already
taken account of this choral part of the symphony,
and recognised it as belonging to the proper field
of music : apart from the ennobling of the melody,
upon which we entered above, there is nothing un-
precedented in it as regards form ; it is a cantata
with words, and the music bears no relation to the
verses other than it would bear to any " vocal text."
We know that the verses of "text writers," though
they were Goethe's or Schiller's, cannot determine
the music ; the Drama only can do this, and indeed
not the dramatic poem, but the drama actually mov-
ing before our eyes, as the visible counterpart of the
music ; wherein word and speech belong to the action,
and no longer serve to express a poetical thought.
BEKTHOVEN. 89
It is therefore not Beethoven's particular work, but
the musician's unheard-of artistic deed contained in
it, that we should take as the culminating point in
the development of his genius; and we declare that
the work of art entirely formed and quickened by
that deed, would also present the most complete
artistic form ; for in that form, as regards the drama,
and especially as regards music, every conventionality
would be entirely abolished.
This then would be the sole new Art-form ade-
quate to the German spirit so powerfully individual-
ised in our great Beethoven; a purely human form,
yet indigenous, and originally German, a form that
the modern world, in comparison with the antique,,
has hitherto lacked.
Whoever is influenced by the views I have advanced
regarding Beethoven's music, cannot escape being
held to be phantastic and extravagant. Such reproach
will be cast upon him not only by our educated and
uneducated musicians of the day who have expe-
rienced the dream-vision of music referred to, irc
the shape of Bottom the weaver's vision in A Mid-
summer-Night's Dream, but especially by our literary
poets, and even plastic artists in so far as these
9O BEETHOVEN.
trouble themselves at all about questions that appear
to lead entirely away from their sphere. But it is
easy to make up one's mind to bear such reproaches
calmly, even if they should be put forth contemptu-
ously, in a manner meant to be insulting, and with
an ignoring of all we have actually done and said ;
for it is clear enough that such people are quite
unable to realise what we see : or at best see only so
much of it as might be needful to throw a light on
their own sterility; and it need not remain dubious
why they should shrink from such a light.
If we consider the character of our present literary
and artistic public life, a notable change, that has
taken p^ce within about a generation, is perceptible.
It would nowadays appear not only possible, but to
a considerable extent certain, that the great period
of German regeneration, with its Goethe and Schiller,
will henceforth be looked down upon, though perhaps
with a "well-tempered" depreciation.
A generation ago this was not quite so: the
character of the age was then openly proclaimed
" essentially critical." People designated the spirit of
the time as a " paper spirit " and thought it advis-
able to accord even to the plastic arts a merely repro-
ductive activity, deprived of every trace of origin-
ality, and content with the use and combination of
BEETHOVEN. 9!
inherited types. One must assume that people saw
more clearly, and spoke more frankly then, than
they do nowadays. Whoever therefore, despite the
confident bearing of our literati, sculptors, builders,
and others who have intercourse with the public
mind, still adheres to the opinion that formerly ob-
tained, will be more inclined to agree with us, when
we undertake to place the incomparable significance
music has attained with regard to the growth of our
culture, in its proper light.
For this purpose let us turn from the inner world
that has so far absorbed us, to the aspects of the
-outer world in which we live, and under the pressure
of which that inner being has become possessed of
its present reactionary power towards the exterior.
But not to lose our way in a wide-spread maze
.among the facts of the history of culture, let us
take up a trait, characteristic of the spirit of the
immediate present.
Whilst German forces are victoriously penetrating
to the centre of French civilisation,* a feeling of shame
has of a sudden risen amongst us about our depend-
ence upon that civilisation, and it appears publicly
in the shape of an appeal to lay aside the fashion-
able costumes of Paris. Patriotic feeling seems at
- 1870.
92 BEETHOVEN.
last to have found that objectionable, which the
nation's aesthetic sense of propriety not only endured
so long without the slightest protest, but which our
public spirit eagerly and zealously emulated. What,
indeed, did a plastic artist see when looking at our
public life ? a life that furnished nothing but materials
for the caricatures of the comic papers, whilst our
poets imperturbably reiterated their congratulations
to " German womanhood 1 " Surely this singularly
complicated phenomenon needs no comment !
It might perhaps be taken as a passing evil : one
might expect that the blood of our sons, brothers,
and husbands poured out for the boldest aspirations
of the German spirit upon the most murderous
battlefields history records, would at least cause our
daughters, sisters, and wives to blush with shame,
and that a noble need might rouse their pride, so
that they would no longer care to present themselves
to men as ridiculous caricatures. Now, to the honour
of German women, we may gladly believe that a
worthy feeling moves them in this direction; yet pro-
bably no one could avoid a smile when he first heard
of an appeal made to them to provide themselves
with a new costume. Who did not feel but that the
matter turned upon a new, and perhaps very awk-
BEETHOVEN. 93
ward masquerade ? For it is not an accidental
whim of our public life, that we are under the sway
of fashion ; just as there are valid reasons in the
history of modern civilisation why the caprices of
Parisian taste should dictate to us in matters of
conventionality. In fact French taste, the spirit of
Paris and Versailles, has for two centuries been the
sole productive ferment of European culture ; whilst no
nation's spirit proved capable of forming types of art,
the French spirit produces at least the external form
of society, and to this day, the fashionable costume.
Now these phenomena may perhaps be undigni-
fied, still they are indigenous in France, and suit
the French spirit ; they express it as distinctly and
obviously as the Italians of the Renaissance, the
Romans, the Greeks, the Egyptians and Assyrians
have expressed themselves in their types of art; and
there is nothing more significant as to the fact that
the French are the ruling people of the civilisation of
our day, than that our fancy at once stumbles upon
the ludicrous if we only imagine ourselves trying to
get rid of their fashions. We see at a glance that a
" German fashion " opposed to a French fashion would
be something utterly absurd; and as our feeling
nevertheless revolts against that rule, we have finally
94 BEETHOVEN.
to confess ourselves fallen under a veritable curse r
from which only a regeneration infinitely deep
could redeem us. That is to say, our entire nature
would have to change, so that the very idea of
fashion would become utterly meaningless, even as
regards our external life.
We may now with great caution draw our con-
clusions as to what this regeneration would have to
consist in, after having first inquired into the cause
of the deep decay of public taste for art As the
use of analogies has already, in connection with the
main subject of our investigation, led, with some
degree of success, to results otherwise hard to attain,
let us again try a province of reflection apparently
remote, but wherein we may at all events gain a
complement to our views concerning the plastic
character of our public life.
If we want a notion of a true paradise of mental
productivity, we must turn to times before letters
were invented, or written upon parchment or paper.
We shall find that the entire elements of culture,
that now only continue to exist as a matter for
speculation, or as means to be adapted to ends,
were then born. Poetry was nothing else than the
actual invention of myths, i.e., of ideal occurrences,
UEETHOVEN. 95
wherein human life was reflected in objective realityy
according to its varying character, in the sense of
immediate apparitions. We notice every nobly dis-
posed people in possession of that capability, up to-
the time when written characters are introduced..
From that time forwards the poetical power wanes ;.
language, hitherto steadily and naturally developing,
falls into a process of crystallisation and grows-
rigid ; poetry becomes the art of adorning the old
myths, now no longer to be invented, and it ends as
rhetoric and dialectics.
Let us now realise the leap from writing to the
art of printing. From a costly written book, the
master of the house formerly read to his family and
guests ; but now every one reads printed books in.
silence, for himself, and authors write for readers.
One must recall the religious sects of the Reforma
tion, their disputations and petty tracts, to catch a
glimpse of the raging delirium that took hol-d of the
heads of men possessed with printer's type. It may-
be assumed that the healthy spirit of the Reforma-
tion was saved by Luther's glorious chorale, for it
swayed heart and mind, and cured the cerebral
typomania. Still, the genius of a people could come
to an understanding with the printer, wretched as it
96 BJ?r.THOVEN.
might find the intercourse ; but since the invention
of newspapers, and the full bloom of journalism,
the good spirit of the people has been forced to
retire altogether from public life. For now opinions *
only rule " public opinions ; " and they can be had
for money, like public women : whoever takes in a
newspaper has procured its " opinions " over and
above the waste paper ; he need not think or reflect
any further ; what is to be thought of God and the
world lies ready before him in black and white. And
why should not a Parisian " Journal des Modes " tell
"German womanhood" how it is to dress? For
Frenchmen have acquired a full right to tell us what
is correct in such matters since they have risen to be
the proper "illustrators in colour" of our journal-
istic paper-world.
Compare the transformation of a poetical world
into a journalistic-literary world, with the transforma-
tion the world has undergone with regard to form
and colour, and you will get the same result.
Who would be presumptuous enough to declare
he could really form a conception of the grandeur,
the divine sublimity of the plastic world of Grecian
Antiquity? Every glance at a single fragment of
* "Meinungen."
BEETHOVEN. 97
its rums, causes uj to feel with awe, that we stand
before an aspect of life, for the estimation of which we
cannot even had the slightest standard. That world
has acquired the prerogative to teach all times, from
its very ruins, how the remaining course of life in the
world might, in some measure, be made endurable.
We are thankful to the great Italians, that they
revived that teaching, and nobly introduced it to
our later world. We see the Italian people, so highly
endowed with rich fancy, actually exhaust themselves
in the passionate fostering of that teaching ; after a
wonderful century the Italians vanish like a dream
from history ; and history now, by mistake, take.,
hold of an apparently kindred people, as though it
were to see what could be got from them, with regard
to the world's form and colour. After the Protes-
tant spirit had been completely eradicated from the
French people, an astute statesman and ecclesias-
tical Prince sought to innoculate their spirit with
Italian art and culture : they had seen their noblest
heads fall, and what was spared at the Parisian mar-
riage of blood* had finally been exterminated, burnt
down to the very stump.
Thereafter the remainder of the nation was treated
* "St. Bartholomew's Eve,"
G
9*> BEETHOVEN.
" artistically ; " but as fancy was not forthcoming, or
had expired among them, productivity was likewise
not forthcoming, and they remained peculiarly inept
to create a type of art. The attempt to make an
artificial being of a Frenchman personally, succeeded
better ; the artistic conceptions, which did not enter
into his fancy, could be turned into an artificial
presentation of the entire man himself. This might
even pass for antique: i.e., if it be assumed that a
man should be made to deal artistically with his
proper person, ere he can be asked to bring forth
works of art. If then an adored and gallant king
set the proper example by an uncommonly delicate
demeanour towards everybody and everything, it
was easy to start from that climax and, descending
through the courtiers, at length induce the entire
people to accept "gallant" manners, the cultivation
of which was fostered till it became quite a second
nature, and a Frenchman might in the end deem
himself superior to an Italian of the Renaissance,
inasmuch as the latter had produced works of art
only, whereas the Frenchman had made a " work of
art " of his proper person.
One may say of a Frenchman that he is the pro-
duct of a special art of expressing, moving, and
BEETHOVEN. 99
dressing himself. His rule for this is " taste," a
word derived from the lowest function of the senses,
and used for an intellectual capacity. With that
"taste" a Frenchman relishes himself, after the manner
of his "dressing," like a well-concocted sauce. And
assuredly, he has become a virtuoso in the matter:
he is thoroughly " modern ; " and if he sets himself
up as a model to the civilised world, it is not his
fault, if he should be imitated awkwardly ; it does
him steady credit rather, that he is original, in that
wherein others feel bound to imitate him. This sort
of man is thoroughly "journalistic" too ; plastic art,
and music no less, is a matter of " Feuilleton " to
him. As a thoroughly modern person he has
arranged his plastic arts like his costume ; he is
fond of change, and proceeds accordingly. Here the
furniture is the chief consideration ; for its sake the
architect constructs the building. The spirit accord-
ing to which this was formerly accomplished was,
up to the Revolution at least, original in the
sense that it suited the character of the reigning
classes of society, much as their costume sat well on
their bodies, and their wigs on their heads. Since
then, however, this spirit has waned ; for the upper
classes left the initiative to the broader strata
1OO BEETHOVEN.
of society, which (we still keep Paris in view) have
since attained importance. The so-called demi-
monde, with its supporters, now sets the example
A Parisian lady seeks to make herself attractive to
her husband by imitating its customs and costumes ;
for here, at least, everything is still original, since
customs and costumes belong together, and complete
one another. The demi-monde renounced all at-
tempts at influencing the plastic arts, until these,
at length, have passed over to the domain of the
dealers in artistic fashions, bric-a-brac and uphol-
sterer's work almost like the first beginnings of
art among nomadic peoples. There is a constant
demand for novelty ; and as fashion never produces
anything really new, its sole expedient lies in changes
from one extreme to the other. And in point of fact
it is this tendency of which our strangely advised
artists have finally caught hold, in order again to
bring to light noble artistic forms of course not of
their own invention. Thus Antique and Rococco,
Gothic and Renaissance, alternate ; the factories
furnish Laocoon-groups, Chinese porcelain, copies
after Raphael and Murillo, Etruscan vases, mediaeval
hangings ; furniture a la Pompadour, Stuccaturi a
la Louis XIV., are added ; and an architect encloses
BEETHOVEN. IO
the whol in Florentine style, and puts an Ariadne
group on top.
" Modern Art " thus becomes a new principle for
aestheticians : its originality consists in the utter lack
of originality, and its incommensurable gain in the
bartering of all styles of art, which can now be dis-
tinguished yy the commonest intelligence, and used
to suit everybody's taste. But a new humanitarian
principle is also attributed to modern art : the
democratisation of a taste for art. We are invited
to hope for a better education of the people by vir-
tue of this phenomenon, and are told that art and
its productions no longer exist for the delight of
the privileged classes, that now the meanest citizen
has a chance to put the noblest types of art upon his
chimney-piece, and that even a beggar may regale
himself at the show windows of the art shops. In
any case we are advised to rest satisfied with things
as they are ; since now, that everything lies pell-mell
before us, it seems downright incomprehensible that
?ven the most gifted intelligence should hit upon a
.new style either for plastic art, or literature.
We can but concur in such a judgment; for we
are dealing with an outcome of history fully as con-
sistent as is that of our civilisation in general.
IO2 BEETHOVEN.
It might be conceivable that this outcome should
become blunted, *>., in the downfall of our civilisa-
tion ; which might perhaps be deemed possible
supposing all history were thrown of a heap, as a
result of social communism, should that power ever
master the modern world in the sense of a practical
religion. In any case the true productivity of our
civilisation, at least as regards its plastic forms, has
come to an end ; and we shall finally do well to
accustom ourselves not to expect anything in this
department approaching the antique world, which
remains an unattainable prototype. We shall prob-
ably have to remain content with these strange, and,
to some people, estimable results of modern civilisa-
tion, conscious that any protest against them is as much
a vain reaction against the spirit of our civilisation,
as an attempt to set up a new German costume for
ourselves or our wives.
For as far as the eye reaches, we are ruled by
Fashion.
But by the side of the world of fashion another
world has simultaneously arisen. As Christianity
arose from under the universal civilisation of Rome,
so from the chaos of modern civilisation Music
bursts forth. Both affirm : "our king-dom is not of
BEETHOVEN. 103
this world." That is to say: we come from within,
you from without ; we spring from the essential
nature of things, you from their semblance.
Let every one experience for himself how the
entire modern world of phenomena that, to his
despair, everywhere impenetrably hems him in,
suddenly vanishes away as soon as he hears the first
bars of one of those divine symphonies. How could
we possibly listen with any devotion to such music
at one of our concert rooms (where Turcos and
Zouaves might doubtless feel at ease !) if the physical
surroundings did not vanish from our optical per-
ception ? Yet this is, taken in its most serious
sense, the uniform effect of music over and against
our entire modern civilisation ; music extinguishes it
as sunshine does lamplight.
It is difficult to form a distinct idea in what
manner music has always manifested its special
power in the presence of the world of phenomena.
The music of the Hellenes appears to have thoroughly
permeated the phenomenal world, and blended with
the laws of its perceptibility. Assuredly Pythagoras*
numbers are explicable only through music ; the
architect built according to the laws of Rhythm and
proportion ; after those of Harmony the plastic
104 BEETHOVEN.
artist took up the human form ; the laws of melody
made a singer of a poet, and from the midst of the
choral song the drama was projected upon the stage.
Everywhere the inner law, interpreted through the
spirit of music, determines the outer law which
regulates the perceptible world : the idea of a true
antique Doric State whJch Plato tried to fix as a
philosophical conception, the order of war, the battle,
all were conducted by the rules of music with the
same certainty as the dance. But that paradise was
lost : a world's primitive source of motion became
exhausted. It moved on in the vortex of radiation,
as a ball moves from an impetus received, but no
impelling soul moved within it ; and so the move-
ment slackened in the end ; till the world's soul was
wakened anew.
The spirit of Christianity reanimated the soul of
music. It transfigured the eye of the Italian pain-
ters, and inspired their vision to pierce through the
semblance of things to their soul ; i.e., to the spirit
of Christianity, otherwise existing in the Church.
Nearly all the great painters were musicians, and it
is the spirit of music which leads us, while absorbed
in the contemplation of their Saints and Martyrs, to
forget that we are seeing.
BEETHOVEN. 1 05
But the rule of fashion came round : as the spirit
of the Church decayed under the artful discipline of
the Jesuits, so music, together with the plastic arts,
sank to soulless artificiality.
Now we have followed the wonderful process of
the emancipation of melody from the rule of fashion
under our great Beethoven, and found that with
incomparable originality he made use of all the ma-
terials which his glorious predecessors had painfully
wrested from the influence of fashion ; that he had
given to melody its ever valid type, and restored to
music its immortal soul. Moreover, our master with
his peculiar divine naivet6, impressed upon his vic-
tory the seal of the perfect consciousness with which
he had won it.
In Schiller's poem, which he set to the wonderful
closing movement of his ninth symphony, he saw
above all things the joy of nature free from the
thraldom of " Fashion." Let us look at the remark-
able interpretation he gives to the poet's words :
"Deine Zauber binden wieder
Was die Mode streng getheilt."
(Thy magic unites again
What fashion has sternly severed.}
As we have seen above, Beethoven set the words
106 BEETHOVEN.
to the melody only as a vocal text, in the sense oi
a general harmony between the character of the
poem and the spirit of the melody. In doing so he
almost entirely disregards what one is accustomed to
understand by correct declamation, particularly in a
dramatic sense ; when the three first stanzas of the
poem are sung he allows the verse "Was die Mode
streng getheilt" (What fashion has sternly severed)
to pass without any particular emphasis on the
words. But then, after an unheard-of increase of
dithyrambic exaltation he takes up the words of
this verse with full dramatic passion, and as he re-
peats them in menacing, almost furious unison, the
word " streng " (strict, stern) does not suffice for his
anger. Curiously enough, this more moderate
epithet for the action of fashion is due to a change
by which the poet later in life weakened his verse ;
for in the first edition of his " Ode to Joy " Schiller
had printed "Was der mode Schwert getheilt!'*
(What the sword of fashion has sundered.)
Now this " sword " did not appear to Beethoven to
be the right thing either; as applied to fashion he
deemed it too noble and heroic. So on his own
sovereign authority he inserted "frech" (insolent.
BEETHOVEN. IO/
impudent), and we now sing "Was die Mode frech*
getheilt." Can anything speak plainer than this
remarkable, passionately vehement artistic act ? One
sees Luther in his indignation against the Pope !
We may deem it certain, that our civilisation, as
far as it determines artistic Man, can only be reani-
mated by the spirit of music, of that music which
Beethoven released from the fetters of Fashion.
And the task of leading the way in this sense to
the new and more soulful civilisation, which per-
haps may shape itself under that spirit, as well as
to the new religion permeating that civilisation this
task must be reserved for the German spirit which
we shall ourselves learn to comprehend properly, if
we relinquish every false tendency ascribed to it,
Self-knowledge, however, is difficult, particularly
* In Hartel's complete edition of Beethoven's works, so worthy of
thanks in every way, a member of what I have elsewhere designated
as the musical "Temperance Society," who was entrusted with the
"criticism" of that edition, has eradicated this striking feature (page
260, etc., of the score of the ninth symphony), and for the "frech" of
Schott's original edition, on his own responsibility substituted the
highly respectable and modestly-moderate " streng." I have just, by
accident, discovered this corruption which, on reflecting upon the
motives that prompted it, might well fill one with shuddering presenti-
ments as to the fate of our great Beethoven's works, if in time to come
they are to fall under a species of criticism progressively developed in
this spirit.
108 BEKTHOVEN.
for an entire nation, as we ha.ve just learnt, with
surprise and horror, from our hitherto so powerful
neighbours, the French ; let this be a serious induce-
ment to examine ourselves; for which purpose we
have happily only to follow the earnest endeavours
of our great poets, whose fundamental desire, conscious
or unconscious, was this very self-knowledge.
It must have been a matter of doubt to them how
the uncouth and clumsy nature of Germans was to
maintain itself, with any degree of advantage, by the
side of the sure and lithe form of our neighbours of
Romanic origin. As, on the other hand, the German
spirit showed an undeniable superiority in the depth
and warmth with which it apprehended the world and
its phenomena, the question remained always, how
that superiority was to be guided towards a happy
development of the national character ; and how,
from this point onward, a favourable influence upon
the spirit and character of neighbouring peoples
might be hoped for ; whereas hitherto influences of
that sort from without had, in a very obvious manner,
acted injuriously rather than beneficially upon Ger-
many.
If we rightly understand the two chief poetical
plans which run like main arteries through the life of
BEETHOVEN. I Op
our greatest poet, Goethe, we shall get the best guid-
ance for the solution of the problem which occupied
that freest of German men, from the very beginning
of his incomparable poetical career. We know that
the conceptions of "Faust," and "Wilhelm Meister,"
belong to that early period, when his poetical
genius brought forth its first superabundant blos-
soms. The profound fervency of the thought that
filled him, prompted the execution of the rudimentary
beginning of "Faust": as though frightened by the
excess and incommensurability of his own conception,
he turned from that mighty project to attack the
problem in a calmer form, in "Wilhelm Meister."
In ripe manhood he executed that smoothly-flowing
Romance. His hero is the young German citizen's
son, who passes by way of the stage, through aris-
tocratic society, towards a useful cosmopolitanism,
always in search of the forms of good manners and
firm behaviour. A genius is given to him, which he
understands but superficially : Wilhelm Meister sees
in " Mignon " something similar to what Goethe then
saw in music. The poet leads us to feel distinctly that
a revolting crime is committed against " Mignon ;" but
he conducts his hero, beyond reach of a similar feeling,
towards calm culture, and into a sphere free from all
IIC BEETHOVEN.
vehemence and tragical eccentricity. He takes him
to contemplate paintings in a gallery. Music accom-
panies Mignon's interment, and was actually com-
posed later on by Robert Schumann. It appears
Schiller revolted at the last book of Wilhelm Meister ;
still, he probably did not know how to help his great
friend out of the strange aberration ; especially as he
had to assume that Goethe, who after all had created
Mignon and called to life a wondrous new world in
that creation, must have fallen into a state of deep
inward distraction, from which a friend was powerless
to awaken him. Only Goethe could rouse himself
from it ; and he did arise : for in extreme old age he
completed his Faust. All that had ever distracted
him, he here gathered together into one prototype of
beauty. He exorcises the entire, full, antique ideal
Helen herself from the realm of shades, and weds
her to his Faust. But the bann does not confine the
Spirit: it becomes evanescent in a lovely fleeting cloud,
and Faust gazes after it in thoughtful but painless
melancholy. Crete/ten only could redeem Faust : from
the world of the Blessed, the early sacrificed one, who
had ever tenderly lived on unheeded in the depths of
his soul, reaches her hand to him. And if we may
now be permitted an attempt to interpret that pro-
BEETHOVEN. 1 1 1
foundest of poetical works, as we have before used
analogical comparisons of a philosophical and physio
logical kind, let us take " Alles Vergangliche ist nur
ein Gleichniss " (All that is transient is but an alle-
gory) for that spirit of the plastic arts which Goethe
pursued so long and so well, " Das ewig Weibliche
zieht uns hinan " (The eternal-womanly draws us on
and upwards) for the spirit of music, that arose from
the poet's deepest consciousness, and now pends
above him, and leads him on the way of redemp-
tion.*
* " Chorus mysticus "
(at the close of Goethe's Faust, Part //.).
" Alles Vergangliche
Ist nur ein Gleichniss,
Das Unzulangliche
Hier wird es Ereigniss
Das Unaussprechliche
Hier wird es gethan
Das Ewig- Weibliche
Zieht uns hinan ! "
(Bayard Taylor's version.)
" All things transitory
But as symbols are sent :
Earth's insufficiency
Here grows to event :
The Indescribable
Here it is done :
The Woman-Soul leadeth u
Upward and on ! "
112 BEETHOVEN.
And forward upon this way, starting from inner-
most experience, the German spirit must lead its-
people, if it will bless the nation, as it is called
upon to do. Ridicule us who may, whilst we
attribute this great significance to German music j
we shall swerve as little, as the German people
swerved when, with well calculated doubt as to its
solidity and solidarity, its enemies ventured to
insult it. And our foremost poet knew this too ;
when Germans appeared so null and silly in their
manners and ways, sprung from awkward imitation
of others, his consolation was this : " Germans are
brave." And that is something !
Let the German nation be brave in peace as well ;
let it conserve its real worth, and cast off false sem-
blance ; may it never desire to pass for what it is not,
but rather recognise that in its own nature by which it
stands alone. The gracefully pleasurable is denied tc
it ; but its true thought and action are heartfelt and
sublime. And nothing can more inspiringly stand
beside the triumphs of its bravery in this wonder
ful year 1870 than the memory of our great Beetho-
ven, who just a hundred years ago was born to tht
German people. There, at the high seat of " insolent
fashion," whither our weapons are now penetrating,
BEETHOVEN. 1 1 j
his genius has already begun the noblest con-
quest. What our thinkers, our poets, hampered by
inadequate translations, have there touched unclearly,
as it were with inarticulate sound, Beethoven's sym-
phonies have already roused from the depths; the
new religion, the world-redeeming announcement of
sublimest innocence, is already understood there as
with us.
Let us then celebrate the great path-finder in the
wilderness of degenerate paradise ! But let us cele-
brate him worthily, not less worthily than the vic-
tories of German bravery : for the world's benefactor
takes precedence of the world's conqueror !
SUPPLEMENT I.
FROM ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER'S "VERSUCH UEER
DAS GEISTERSEHEN UND WAS DAMIT ZUSAM-
MENHANGT."
{AN ESSAY ON VISIONS AND MATTERS CONNECTED THEREWITH.)
"Parerga und Paralipomena, I." Berlin, 7851.
Unb tafj biv vatfteu, fyare
ic TC not the sun too much, nor yet the stars,
Come, follow me to the realms of Night I)
APPARITIONS and magic, which the last century,
over-wise and defiant of all its predecessors, banished
rather than banned, appear to have been rehabili-
tated in Germany during the last twenty-five years.
Perhaps not without some show of reason. For the
arguments against their existence were partly
metaphysical and, as such, stood upon insecure
ground; partly empirical, proving only that in the
cases where no accidental, or purposely contrived
delusion was discovered, there was nothing present
that could have acted upon the retina by reflection
of the rays of light, or upon the tympanum by
vibrations of the air. But this speaks against the
presence of bodies only, a presence which no one
had maintained, and the manifestation of which in
the said physical way, is not what is implied by
an apparition. For properly speaking the idea 01
Il3 SUPPLEMENT I.
a spectre, already includes the notion that its presence
is known otherwise than as that of a body. One who
sees spectres, if he understood and could express
himself rightly, would simply maintain the presence
of a picture in his perceptive intellect, altogether in-
distinguishable from the picture which bodies pro-
duce there through the mediation of light and of his
o o
eyes /ind yet without the actual presence of such
bodies; similarly with regard to what may be heard,
noises, tones and articulations, altogether like those
produced through vibrating bodies and air in his
ear, yet without the presence or movement of such
bodies. Just here lies the source of the misunder-
standing that permeates all that is said for and
against the reality of spectral phenomena : ie.,
spectral phenomena present themselves entirely like
bodily phenomena ; but they are not such, and are
not supposed to be such. This distinction is difficult,
ind requires knowledge of the matter, and even
>f philosophy and physiology. For it is needful
o comprehend that an influence like that of a
body does not necessarily involve the presence of
a body.
To begin with, we shall therefore have to recall
and steadily keep in view what I have repeatedly
ON VISIONS. 119
shown at length,* that our perception of the external
world is not only sensual, but principally intellectual,
i.e., expressed objectively, cerebral. The senses never
oive more than a mere sensation in the on/an of
o o
sense, in itself a very scanty supply, from which,
subsequently, the understanding constructs this
world of phenomena, by the application of the law
of causality, which it knows a priori, and of the forms
of space and time, which are also a priori inherent in
it. The excitation to this act of perception certainly
starts, in a waking and normal condition, from sen-
sations, for sensation is the effect, towards which
the understanding suggests the cause. But why
should it not be possible that for once an excitation
should reach the brain, starting from a totally dif-
ferent side, from within, from the organism itself,
and then, by means of the peculiar function of the
brain and its mechanism, be worked up to a percep-
tion like the other ? But after such a working up the
diversity of the original matter would no longer be
obvious; just as the victuals from which chyle has
been prepared can no longer be distinguished. Sup-
* Abhancllung liber den Satz vom zureicheruien Grunde, p. 21. Ueber
das Sehen und die Farben, p. I. Welt als Wille und Vorstellung,
I. p. 12-14 II. chap. 2.
I2O SUPPLEMENT I.
posing a case of this kind had actually occurred, the
question would then arise, whether the more remote
cause that brought about the phenomenon is never to
be searched for further than the interior of the organ-
ism ; or whether, barring all impressions of the senses,
it could nevertheless be an external cause, which of
course could not, in any case, have acted physically or
bodily ; and, if this were so, in what relation does
the given phenomenon stand to the nature of such
a remote external cause ; does the phenomenon
contain indicia about such a cause, or even is
the essential nature of such a cause expressed
in the phenomenon. Accordingly we should here
also, as with the bodily world, be led to the question
of the relation of phenomena to " the thing per se"
But this is the transcendental standpoint, from which
it might result that spectral phenomena have neither
more nor less ideality than bodily phenomena, which
latter, as is weM known, are inevitably subject to
the idealistic view, and can be referred, only after a
wide detour, to the "thing per se" i.e., the truly real.
As we have recognised this thing per se (of Kant's)
to be Will, we might take occasion to conjecture that
Will is the basis of spectral phenomena, as it is of
bodily phenomena.
ON VISIONS. 121
All explanations of spectral phenomena hitherto
attempted have been spiritualistic : and as such they
are subject to Kant's criticism, in the first part of his
41 Dreams of a Spirit-seer." I am here attempting
an idealistic explanation.
The first question, then, would be whether per-
ceptible pictures can really arise in our perceiving
intellect, quite like, and undistinguishable from, those
pictures which are produced by the presence of
bodies acting upon the outward senses, yet without
such influences. Luckily a familiar phenomenon dis-
poses of every doubt in this direction : the dream.
To represent dreams as mere play of thought, mere
pictures of the fancy, shows want of consideration
or of candour : for obviously there is a specific differ-
ence. The pictures of the fancy are weak, dim, incom-
plete, onesided and evanescent, to such a degree that
one can hardly retain the picture of absent persons for
a few seconds, and even the liveliest play of the fancy
cannot stand comparison with that palpable reality,
which a dream exhibits. Our capacity for represen-
tation whilst dreaming is immeasurably superior to
our imaginative faculty. During a dream every
perceptible object is really complete, universally con-
122 SUPPLEMENT I.
sistent, down to the most accidental details, like
actuality itself, from which fancy remains immeasur-
ably distant; for which reason dream-pictures would
afford us the most wonderful views, if we could only
choose the object of our dreams. It is quite in-
correct to attempt to explain this by the fact that
pictures of the fancy are disturbed and weakened by
simultaneous impressions of actual surroundings : for
in the deepest stillness of the darkest night fancy
is unable to produce anything that shall in any way
approach to that objective perceptibility and corpor-
ality of a dream. Besides the pictures of the fancy
are always brought about by association of ideas,
or through motives, and are accompanied by the
consciousness of their arbitrariness. But the dream
appears as something quite extraneous, which forces
itself upon us like the external world without our aid r
yea even against our desire. The unexpected manner
of its events, even of the most insignificant, stamps
them with the character of objectivity and actuality.
All its objects appear decided and distinct, like actual-
ity, not only with regard to ourselves, that is super-
ficial, onesided, or only indicated in the main and
in general outlines ; but rather carried out accurately,.
to the smallest and most accidental details, and down.
ON VISIONS. I2J
to accessory circumstances that often hinder us and
stand in our way : here each body throws its shadow,
each falls with the gravity pertaining to its specific
weight, and every obstruction must first be cleared
away, just as in actuality. The thoroughly objective
character of a dream is furthermore apparent, in-
asmuch as what happens generally turns out other
than we expect, often against our wish and, at times,
even excites our astonishment ; that the persons act-
ing in the dream behave with revolting indiscretion
towards us; in a general way also in the purely
objective dramatic correctness of the characters and
actions ; which has called forth the apt remark that
every one whilst dreaming can be a Shakespeare,
For the same omniscience in us, which brings it about
that in a dream each natural body acts in precise
accordance with its essential qualities, also brings-
about, that each man acts and speaks fully accord-
ing to his character. In consequence of all this the
deception which a dream produces is so strong, that
actuality itself, which stands before us on a\vakening r
has often to take time and strive, ere it can speak
and convince us of the delusions of the dreams that
already have ceased to exist.
Similarly with respect to memory we doubt at
124 SUPPLEMENT I.
times whether insignificant occurrences were dreamt
of or did actually take place : but if, on the other
hand, a man doubts whether a thing took place
or whether he merely imagined it, he puts himself
under the suspicion of insanity. All this proves that
the dream is a function of our brain quite peculiar
and thoroughly different from mere fancy and its
ruminations.
Aristotle also says : TO iv\nrviov eo-riv aia-Orj^a, rpo-jrov
Tti/a,* and he further observes, delicately and cor-
rectly, that whilst dreaming, we are capable of fancy-
ing absent things. From which it may be concluded
that during a dream fancy is still at our disposal,
and therefore cannot itself be the medium, or the
organ of the dream.
On the other hand again the dream bears an
undeniable resemblance to insanity. For the main
difference between dreaming and waking conscious-
ness consists in a lack of memory, or rather of
connected, considerate recollection. We dream our-
selves into odd, even impossible positions and
circumstances, and it does not occur to us to inquire
into the relations they may bear to what is absent or
to seek for their causes; we commit inconsistent
* ' Dreaming is in a manner sensation."
ON VISIONS. 125
actions because we do not recollect what might
oppose them. People long dead figure in our dreams
as living again ; whilst dreaming we do not recollect
that they are dead. We often see ourselves in
circumstances that existed in our earliest youth,
surrounded by the persons of that time as of old ; all
changes and reconstructions that have since come to-
pass are forgotten. It seems accordingly that in
dreams, whilst all the powers of the mind are active^
memory alone is not quite at our disposal, and here-
on rests the resemblance to insanity, which latter, as
I have shown,*, is essentially a certain disorder of the
powers of 'memory. -From this point of vie tv there-
fore the dream may be designated as a short insanity r
insanity as a long dream. On the whole then, in
dreams the perception of present reality is quite per-
fect, and even minute. Whilst our horizon is limited
inasmuch as we are little conscious of that which
is absent and past, even if it is but an imaginary
past.
As every change in the real world can absolutely
not take place except as the consequence of a pre-
ceding change, its cause; so the entrance of all
thoughts and perceptions iiio our consciousness
* Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, I. p. 36, and II., chap. 32.
126 SUPPLEMENT I.
depends altogether upon the law of Causality ; hence
they must be brought about either by an outward
impression upon the senses, or, according to the la\vs
of the association of ideas,* by a preceding thought.
This law of causality, this exclusive principle upon
which all existing objects whatsoever depend and to
the condition of which they conform, must also
necessarily cover dreams in some way, with regard to
the manner of their occurrence; but it is very diffi-
cult to make out in what way dreams are subject to
it. For it is characteristic of dreams that they take
place during sleep: i.e., whilst the normal action of
the brain and the senses is suspended; just as the
pictures of a magic lantern can appear only after the
light in the room has been exterminated. Accordingly
the occurrence, and therefore the matter of the dream,
is in the first place not brought about by outward
impressions upon the senses : single cases, wherein,
during slight slumber, outer tones, or also smells,
have entered the sensorium and gained an influence
upon the dream, are special exceptions, which I do
not take into account here. But now, it is also well
worth remark that dreams are not brought about by
-association of ideas. For they arise either in the
* See Chap. 14, vol. II., of " Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellurg."
ON VISIONS. 127
midst of deep sleep, the true repose of the brain,
which we have every reason to accept as complete,
and without consciousness; so that here even the
possibility of an association of ideas is done away
with : or, again, they arise during the transition from
waking consciousness to sleep, that is whilst we are
going to sleep : when, in fact, they are never quite
absent, and thereby give us a chance to gain the full
conviction that they are not connected with our wak-
ing perception by any association of ideas, but leave
the thread of these untouched, getting their matter
and their occasion from somewhere else, we know
not whence. It may easily be observed that these
first dream-pictures of one just beginning to sleep,
are always without the least connection with the
thoughts he had whilst going to sleep, nay, they are
so surprisingly heterogeneous, that it appears as
though they had purposely chosen of all things in
the world that particular thing furthest from his
thoughts ; and if one reflects upon this, the question
is inevitable, what should induce their choice and
condition ? Moreover they are distinguished (as
Burdach delicately and correctly remarks in the
third volume of his Physiology) by this, that they do
eot represent connected occurrences and for the most
128 SUPPLEMENT I.
part we do ourselves act in them, as in other dreams ;
they are rather a purely objective spectacle, consist-
ing of single and separate pictures that arise of a
sudden as we begin to sleep, or very simple occur-
rences. As we often wake again during their action,
we can convince ourselves completely, that they have
not the least likeness, the remotest analogy, or other
relation, to that which had just been present; that
they rather surprise us by their unexpected import,
which is as alien to the previous course of our
thoughts, as any object of actuality that may sud-
denly enter our perception in the most accidental
manner whilst we are awake, nay, that should ap-
pear so far fetched, so oddly and blindly chosen, as
though it had been fixed upon by lot or dice.
The thread therefore, which we hold by the law
of causality, appears here to be cut at botli the inner
and the outer end. But this is impossible, incon-
ceivable. Necessarily there must be some cause,
which brings about those dreams and controls their
shapes throughout; so that it ought to be possible
from such a cause to explain why I, for instance,
who have been occupied with quite other thoughts
up to the moment of going to s'eep, should suddenly
behold a blossoming tree, softly moved by the wind*
ON VISIONS. 129
and nothing beyond, or at another time a maid-
servant with a basket on her head, again another
time a row of soldiers, &c.
As therefore, when dreams arise, be it whilst going
to sleep or after sleep has set in, the sole seat and
organ of all perceptions, the brain, is cut off from
all excitation by the senses from without and by
thoughts from within, no other supposition remains
open than that the brain receives some purely phy-
siological excitation from the inner organism.
There are two ways open for such an influence :
through the nerves, and through the blood vessels.
During sleep, i.e. the cessation of all animal functions,
the vital power is entirely thrown upon the organic
life, where, during a slight diminution of the breath,
the pulse, and of the bodily temperature, also of
nearly all secretions, it is mainly occupied with
gradual reproduction, restoration of all that has been
used up, healing of all that is damaged, and getting
rid of all disorder; for which reason sleep is the
time during which the vis naticra medicatrix brings
about the salutary crisis in all illnesses, where it gains
the decisive victory over the existing evil, and after
which the patient wakens disburdened and cheerful,
with the sure sense of coming recovery. With
J
I3O SUPPLEMENT I.
men in health it acts similarly though in a far lesser
degree, at all points where there may be need ; hence
one awakens feeling restored and renewed : the brain,
particularly, has received nutrition during sleep, which
could not be accomplished in a waking state; and
the recovery of clear consciousness is the result. All
these operations are led and controlled by the plastic
system of nerves, i.e., the entire great ganglia, or nerve
knots, which for the whole length of the trunk are
connected by leading nerve-strings, and constitute
the great sympathetic nerve, or the inner nerve-
centre. This is quite separate and isolated from the
outer nerve-centre, the brain, which conducts the out-
ward relations, and therefore has a nerve apparatus
turned outward supplying the data for its percep-
tions; so that, in a normal state the operations of the
inner nerve-centre do not reach consciousness and are
not felt. Still, however, it has a mediate and weak
connection with the cerebral system through thin
anastomosing nerves : by way of these, during
abnormal conditions, or more in case of injury to
inner parts, that isolation is, in a certain degree,
broken through, after which such injury is consciously
felt more or less clearly as pain. But in a normal
and healthy state, on the other hand, these nerves
ON VISIONS. 131
convey to the sensorium only an extremely weak and
vague echo of occurrences and movements in the
complicated and active workshop of organic life,
showing its progress to be easier or more difficult.
This is hardly noticed in a waking state, when the
brain is fully occupied with its own operations, i.e.
with the reception of impressions from without, in
perceptions occasioned by these, and in thinking;
at best it has but a secret unconscious influence,
from which those changes of mood arise, of which no
account based on objective causes can be given.
But whilst we go to sleep, when outward impressions
cease to touch us and the activity of thoughts in the
interior of the sensorium gradually dies away, then,
those vague impressions that rise from the inner
nerve-centre in an intermediate way, as also every
slight modification of the circulation of the blood,
come to be felt as the candle begins to shine when
twilight sets in ; or as by night we hear the ripple of
a spring that was inaudible during the noise of day.
Impressions that are too weak to act on the waking,
i.e. active brain, are enabled to produce a slight
excitation of its component parts and tneir percep-
tive powers; as a harp does not vibrate in sympathy
with a strange tone, whilst it is being played upon,
132 SUPPLEMENT I.
but does so if it stands still. Here, then, the cause
of the origin of those dream-shapes that arise as we
begin to sleep must lie, and, collaterally, of their
nearer determination throughout ; as also of those
dreams that rise up from the absolute mental repose
of deep sleep and show dramatic connection ; only
that these latter, as they occur when the brain is
already in deep repose and occupied with its nutri-
tion, must require a far stronger stimulation from
within ; for which reason these dreams only, in single
and very rare cases, show prophetic or fatidical sig-
nificance, and Horace says quite correctly: Post
mediant noctem, cum somnia vera,
For, in this respect, the last morning dreams stand
on the same footing as those that occur when we
begin to sleep, inasmuch as the brain, rested and
nourished, is now again easily excitable.
So then, those vague echoes from the workshop of
organic life penetrate to the sensorial activity of the
brain, when it is sinking towards apathy or has
already reached apathy, and stimulate it slightly
in an unusual way and from a different side than
when it is awake : yet, as all other stimulations are
excluded, the sensorial activity of the brain must
take both the occasion and the matter for its dream-
ON VISIONS. 133
shapes from these vague echoes, however heterogene-
ous they may be to such impressions. For, as the
eye can receive sensations of brightness and light,
through mechanical concussion, or through inner
convulsions of nerves, that shall be quite like those
caused by external light ; as the ear, in consequence
of abnormal occurrences in its interior, at times hears
all sorts of sounds ; as similarly the olfactory nerve,
without external cause, has a sensation of specifically
distinct smells ; as also the gustative nerves are
analogously affected ; as therefore all the nerves of
sense can be stimulated to their peculiar sensations
from within, as well as from without; thus, in a
similar way, the brain may be stimulated by means
of irritations arising from the interior of the organism
to exercise its function of perceiving shapes in space ;
whereby then, the phenomena thus arisen will not be
distinguishable from such as have been called forth
by external causes. Just as the stomach produces
chyme from all that it can master, and the intes-
tines from this produce chyle, at which stage the
original matter is no longer perceptible; just so
the brain reacts upon all stimulations that reach it
by the exercise of its peculiar function. This
function consists, primarily, in the projection of
134 SUPPLEMENT 1.
pictures in space (in all the three dimensions), which
is the form of its perception : secondly, in the moving
of these pictures in time and under the guidance of
causality, which is also a function of its peculiar
activity. For at all times the brain will only speak
its own language ; and therefore it also interprets
those vague impressions which reach it from within
during sleep in this language ; just as it interprets
the strong and distinct impressions that reach it from
without whilst awake : Hence, those impressions also
furnish it with matter for pictures that entirely re-
semble such pictures as arise from the excitation of
the external senses, although there may hardly be any
resemblance at all between the two kinds of causal
impressions. But its conduct in these cases may be
compared to that of a deaf person, who constructs an
entire phrase, though a false one, from a few vowels
that reached his ear; or even to that of a madman,
whose fancy is put upon the track of his fixed ideas
by some word, accidentally used. In any case those
vague echoes of certain occurrences in the interior of
the organism which lose their way upwards to the
brain, become the occasion of its dreams: and
dreams are therefore more especially determined
by the manner of those impressions, as they have
ON VISIONS. 135
at least received their cue from them ; indeed, no
matter how entirely different dreams may be from
these impressions, they will still be found to corres-
pond with them in some manner analogically or at
least symbolically; and in fact the correspondence
will be closest to those impressions that are able to
excite the brain during deep sleep ; because such, as
has been said, must already be considerably stronger.
As, moreover, these internal occurrences of organic
life also act upon the sensorium intended for the
perception of the external world after the manner
of something alien and extraneous to //, it follows
that the perceptions arising upon such an occasion
will be quite unexpected, and entirely heterogeneous
and alien to the train of thought that may have
occupied the sensorium a moment before; and we
have a chance to observe this, when going to sleep
and waking again soon after.
So far this entire exposition shows nothing be-
yond the immediate cause of the occurrence of
dreams, which may influence their import, but
must itself be so heterogeneous to them that the
manner of their kinship remains a mystery. The
physiological process within the brain, which con-
stitutes dreaming proper, is still more of a riddle.
136 SUPPLEMENT I.
For sleep is the repose of the brain, and dreaming
nevertheless a certain activity of it ; so to avoid a con-
tradiction we must take sleep as relative repose, and
dreaming as a limited and partial activity only. And
again we do not know in what sense it is a partial
activity, if with regard to parts of the brain, or to the
degree of its stimulation, or to the manner of its
internal motion, nor in what sense it properly differs
from the waking state.
There is no power of the mind that is never active
in dreams : still the course of dreams, as also our
own behaviour in them, often shows extraordinary-
lack of judgment, and similarly of memory as
pointed out above.
With respect to our chief object the fact remains
that we possess a faculty to perceive objects in space r
and to hear and comprehend sounds and voices of
every sort, both without jaaxy external excitation of our
senses; which faculty, on the other hand, supplies our
waking perception with the occasion, the matter, or
\he empirical foundation, yet is by no means identical
with that perception ; for our perception is throughout
intellectual and not sensual only, as I have frequently
demonstrated and have above referred to. Now we
must retain a firm hold of that fact : a fact open to-
ON VISIONS. 137
no doubt ; for it is the ORIGINAL PHENOMENON,* back
to which all our further explanations will point, as
they will only show a more extended activity of that
faculty of perception without external excitation of
the senses. The best way to designate it would be
to use the expression so happily chosen from a par-
ticular mode of its manifestation, or application, by
Scotchmen, led by the sure tact experience affords :
they call it second sight.
For the capacity to dream here treated of is indeed
a second faculty of perception ; this perception takes
place not, like the first, through the mediation of
the senses, but its objects are, nevertheless, as regards
their manner and form, the same as those of the first ' r
from which it is to be concluded that the one as well
as the other are functions of the brain,
That Scotch expression would consequently be
the most suitable to designate the genus of the
phenomena here under consideration and to refer
them to a fundamental faculty ; but as its inventors
have made use of it to designate a particular,
rare, and highly remarkable manifestation of that
faculty, I cannot make use of it, though I would like
to do so, to designate the entire genus of those per-
* " Das Urpbanomen."
138 SUPPLEMENT I.
ceptions; or, properly, the subjective capability
which appears in them all. For this purpose no
more fitting designation than the organ of dreams*
seems to remain ; it designates the entire manner of
perception we are dealing with, by that manifesta-
tion of it which every one knows and is familiar with.
I shall therefore employ it to designate that faculty
of perception I have shown to be independent of
external impressions upon the senses.
We are accustomed to look upon the objects
which it represents to us in ordinary dreams as alto-
gether illusory, since they disappear on waking ; yet
this is not always the case, and it is very important
with regard to our theme, to get some personal ex-
perience of the exception, which perhaps every one
could do, if he were to give proper attention to the
matter. There is, in fact, a state in which we sleep
and dream ; but we dream only the reality surround-
ing us. Thus \\e see our bedroom, together with
all its contents ; we are aware of people that enter,
we know ourselves in bed, all correctly and accu-
rately. And yet we are asleep, with firmly closed
eyes: we dream ; only what we dream is true and
real.
* " Das Traumorgan."
ON VISIONS. 139
It is just as though our skull had become trans-
parent, so that the external world could now enter
the brain directly and immediately, instead of taking
the roundabout way and entering through the
narrow gate of the senses. It is much more difficult
to distinguish this state from the waking one, than
in the case of ordinary dreams ; because on waking
from it there is no change in the surroundings, that
is, no objective change whatever takes place. But
now, waking is the sole criterion between the waking
state and the dream,* and accordingly here this sole
criterion is not forthcoming, as far as the objective
and chief half of it is concerned. That is to say, on
waking from a dream of the sort in question a
subjective change only takes place with us, which
consists in this, that we feel a sudden transformation
of the organ of our perception ; the transformation,
however, is felt but faintly, and may, as it is not
accompanied by any objective change, easily remain
unnoticed. Hence, for the most part, we become
acquainted with such dreams as represent actuality,
only when particular shapes have intermixed with
them which do not belong to actuality, and conse-
quently disappear on waking, or also when such a
* See Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, Vol. I. 5.
140 SUPPLEMENT I.
dream has received the still higher potentiality of
which I shall speak presently.
The kind of dreaming just described has been
called sleep-waking (Schlafwachen), not that it is
an intermediate condition between sleeping and
waking, but because it can be described as a waking
within sleep. I would therefore prefer to call it
a truth -dreaming (Wahrtraumen). Indeed one
will generally notice it early in the morning only,
perhaps also of an evening, some time after
falling asleep ; but this is solely owing to the fact
that then when sleep was not deep, waking took
place with sufficient ease to admit of a remembrance
of what had been dreamt. Assuredly this kind of
dreaming takes place more frequently during deep
sleep, according to the rule that the somnambulist
becomes more clairvoyant the deeper she sleeps;
but then no recollection of it remains. On the other
hand, that recollection nevertheless remains occa-
sionally, is to be elucidated by the fact that even
from magnetic sleep, when it has been quite slight,
some faint recollection may pass into the waking
consciousness ; an example of which is to be found in
Kieser's " Archiv fur thierischen Magnetismus," iii. p,
139. According to all this a recollection of dreams
ON VISIONS. 141
such as are immediately and objectively true remains
only when these have taken place during slight sleep,
for instance, of a morning, when we may immediately
wake from them.
Now furthermore, this kind of dream, the peculiar-
ity of which consists in the fact that one dreams the
nearest present actuality, occasionally becomes still
more mysterious, inasmuch as the horizon of the
dreamer is somewhat widened, so that it extends be-
yond the bedroom, when curtains or shutters cease
to be obstructions to sight, and one then sees quite
distinctly what lies behind them, the yard, the garden,
or the street with the houses opposite. Our wonder
at this will abate somewhat if we remember that here
no physical vision takes place, but mere dreaming;
still it is a dreaming of that which actually exists,
consequently a " truth - dreaming," a perception
through the organ of dreams, which, as such, is of
course not tied down to the condition of the unin-
terrupted passage of the rays of light. As has been
said, the skull was the first partition through which
in the outset this singular sort of perception took
place unhindered ; if this perception is further en-
hanced, then curtains, doors, and walls are no barriers
for it. Now, how this takes place is a profound
142 SUPPLEMENT I.
secret ; we only know that truth is dreamt here, that
a perception takes place through the organ of
dreams. For our consideration, the extent of the
matter so far is an elementary fact. What we can
do towards elucidating it, if such a thing be at all
possible, consists, to begin with, in collecting and
arranging in proper gradations all the phenomena
connected with it, in the hope of finding a nexus-
between them, and in due course perhaps to attain*
closer insight into it.
Meanwhile any one who has no personal experi-
ence whatever in these matters may get an incon-
trovertible corroboration of the facts described as " a
perception through the organ of dreams " in som-
nambulism proper, or sleep-walking. That those
who suffer under this mania sleep firmly, and that
they are absolutely unable to see with their eyes, is
quite certain ; still they take account of everything
in their immediate vicinity, avoid every obstacle,
walk long distances, climb along the most danger-
ous declivities, upon the narrowest paths, accom-
plish wide leaps, without missing their aim ; some
among these also conduct their daily domestic busi-
ness, whilst asleep, accurately and correctly, others
ronceive and write without mistakes. Similarly
ON VISIONS.
somnambulists, who have been put into magnetic
sleep artificially notice their surroundings and rven
the most remote things, if they become clairvoyant.
Furthermore, the perception which certain appa-
rently dead persons have had of all that occurred near
them, whilst they lay numb and unable to move a
limb, is undoubtedly also of this kind. They also-
dream their present surroundings, becoming con-
scious of them in a way different from that of the
senses. Great exertions have been made to get at a
trace of the physiological medium, the seat of this
perception, but hitherto they have failed. It cannot
be gainsayed that when the somnambulistic state is-
completely at hand, the external senses have ceased
to exercise their functions ; as even the most subjec-
tive sense, bodily feeling, disappears so completely,,
that the most painful surgical operations have been-
performed during magnetic sleep, without the pa-
tient's showing the least sensation of pain. The
brain appears then to be in the state of deepest sleep,,
that is, of complete inactivity.
The following hypothesis relating to the explanation-
of our mode of perception whilst dreaming appears
to me to have a considerable degree of probability.
144 SUPPLEMENT 1.
Since the brain during sleep gets the stimulation
to produce a perception of shapes in space from ivith-
in, instead of from without as it does whilst waking,
this stimulation must touch it in a direction opposite
to the one coming from the senses. And the entire
activity of the brain, that is, the internal vibration or
agitation of its fibres, consequently takes a direction
opposite to the usual one, and gets into an antiperis-
taltic action. That is to say, instead of proceeding
as usual in the direction of sensuous impressions, i.e.
of the nerves of sense, to the interior of the brain,
it is now performed in reversed direction and order,
and occasionally by other sections; so that now,
although perhaps the lower brain section doe.s not
act for the upper, yet, possibly, the white marrow
substance acts in lieu of the grey cortical substance,
or vice versa. Thus the brain now acts as though it
were reversed. This would seem to explain at the
outset why no recollection of the somnambulistic
activity passes into the waking state, for which the
vibration of the brain fibres in the opposite direction
is indispensable, and which consequently obliterates
every trace of the former vibration. As a special
corroboration of this one might take the common
but strange fact, that, \vhen we waken quickly from
ON VISIONS. 145
the first beginning of sleep, we are frequently quite
out of our reckoning as to space, in such sort that we
now conceive everything reversed, that is to say, we
imagine what is to the right of the bed as being to
the left and what is behind as being before, and this
with such decision that, in the dark, the false imagin-
ing is hardly to be got rid of by reasoning, and
we must have recourse to the touch. That remark-
able vivacity of the dream-perception, that apparent
reality and corporality of all objects perceived in
dreams pointed out above, is rendered conceivable
by this hypothesis : it would appear that the stimu-
lation of the brain's activity, coming from the interior
of the organism, starting from the cerebral nerve-
centre, and which acts in a direction opposite to the
usual one, in the end penetrates entirely, that is,
extends at last to the nerves of the organs of sense,
which, now excited from within as formerly from
without, actually begin to work. Accordingly, in
dreams, we really have sensations of light, colour,
sound, smell and taste, solely owing to interior
excitation, and as the consequence of influences
reaching the brain in reversed direction and reversed
order of time. This may explain that corporality
of drr *> by which they differ so greatly from mere
140 SUrPLEUENT I.
fancies. The pictures of the fancy (in waking) are
always merely in the brain: for they are only a
reminiscence, though a modified reminiscence, oi
former, material, excitation of the perceptive cerebral
activity by means of the senses. But the dream-
vision, on the other hand, is not only in the brain,
but also in the nerves of sense, and has arisen
in consequence of a material excitation of the
senses acting for the time being, coming from the
interior of the organism and penetrating the brain.
As, accordingly, we actually see whilst dreaming, the
saying of Apulejus' Charite, when she is about to
pierce the eyes of the sleeping Thrasyllus, appears
particularly apt, nay profound : vivo tibi morientur
oculi, nee quidquant videbis, nisi dormiens*
The organ of dreams, then, is identical with the
organ of waking consciousness and the perception
of the external world, only, as it were, grasped at the
other end and used in reversed order, and the organs
of sense, which act in both, can be set going from
their inner as well as from their outer end ; as a
hollow iron ball can be made red hot from within as
well as from without. Since during this procedure,
the nerves of sense are the last things that become
* Metam, viii. p. 172; ed. Bip^
ON VISIONS. 147
active, it may happen that their activity has only
just begun, and is still going on, when the brain
already wakens, that is to say, when it changes the
dream-perception for the ordinary mode of percep-
tion ; in that case, when just awake, we may hear
sounds, for example, voices, a knocking at the door, a
firing of guns, &c., with a degree of distinctness and
objectivity entirely and without deduction like actu-
ality, and we may then firmly believe them to be
actual sounds, from without, in consequence of which
we have just woke up ; or, in rarer cases, we shall
see shapes, with complete empirical reality ; which
latter are already mentioned by Aristotle.* And it
is through the organ of dreams here described, that
somnambulistic perception, clairvoyance, " second
sight," and visions of every sort take place.
Let us now return from these physiological con-
siderations to the phenomenon of "truth dreaming"
demonstrated above, which may occur already in
the ordinary nocturnal sleep, where mere waking
corroborates it at once, if it has been an imme-
diate phenomenon, i.e., one that has extended only
as far as next present surroundings ; although,
in cases already more rare, it extends a little be
* De insomniis, c. 3 ad finem.
148 SUPPLEMENT I.
yond the nearest barriers. Such widening of the
horizon may, hou-ever, extend very much further, not
only in space, but also as regards time. The proof of
this is furnished by clairvoyant somnambulists, who,
during the period when their state has reached
its climax, can bring any place chosen at random,
towards which they are directed, at once within
range of their perceptive dream-cognition, can indi-
cate the occurrences that take place there correctly,
and at times are enabled to announce beforehand
that which does not yet exist, but is still lying in the
lap of futurity, and will only .attain reality in course
of time, by means of innumerable intermediate
causes that meet accidentally. For all clairvoyance,
in the somnambulistic " sleep-waking " that occurs
naturally, as well as in that produced artificially, all
perceptions of hidden, absent, distant, even of future
things, that have become possible during this state,
are throughout nothing else than a truth-dreaming;
the objects of which are presented to the intellect
as perceptible and corporal, just as our dreams
are ; for which reason the somnambulists speak
of having seen them. Meanwhile this phenomenon,
as also that of spontaneous sleep-walking, affords a
sure proof, that the mysterious perception, entrusted
ON VISIONS. 149
to us by the dream and controlled by no impressions
from without, may also stand in the relation of a
perception to the real external world; though the
intermediate links of this connection remain a riddle.
The difference between the ordinary nocturnal
dream and clairvoyance or " sleep- waking " in general
lies, primarily, in the absence of this relation to the
outer world, that is, to reality ; and secondly, in the
fact that a recollection of the dream often passes to
the waking state, whilst such a recollection does not
pass from somnambulistic sleep. These two qualities
might, however, form some connection, and might
be referred one to the other. For we only have
some recollection of the common dream in case
we immediately wake from it : and this recollection
probably rests solely upon the fact that waking
from actual sleep is very easy, as ordinary sleep
is far less deep than somnambulistic sleep; from
which latter an immediate quick waking cannot
take place for this very reason ; whereas a return to
waking consciousness is only possible by means of
slow intermediate transitions. For somnambulistic
sleep is only a much deeper, far-reaching, and more
complete sleep; during which the organ of dreams
comes to develop the entire capacity by which it
ISO SUPPLEMENT I.
attains correct relations to the external world, that is
to say, it attains the possibility of persistent and con-
nected " truth-dreaming." Probably this occasionally
takes place during ordinary sleep, but then only,
when sleep is so deep that we do not immediately
wake from it. On the other hand, the dreams from
which we do waken are those of slighter sleep:
Their origin, finally, lies in somatic causes that per-
tain to the dreamer's organism, and consequently do
not pertain to the external world. That there are ex-
ceptions to this we have already seen in the case of
dreams that represent the immediate surroundings
of the sleeper. But, exceptionally, a recollection of
dreams which announce things that occur at a
distance, nay even things that are about to occur in
future does exist, and it depends mainly upon our
waking immediately from such dreams.
On this account, all peoples at all times have taken
it for granted that there are dreams of real objective
significance ; and in ancient history dreams are taken
up in earnest, and play a considerable rdle; still
fatidical dreams have always been looked upon as
rare exceptions in the countless multitude of empty
and merely deceptive dreams.
ON VISIONS. 151
In order to refer prophetic dreams to their
immediate cause, we may make use of the fact that
though both natural and magnetic somnambulism, and
what takes place under their influence, do not leave
traces in the waking consciousness, yet, occasionally,
a trace of such events passes into the dreams of natural
ordinary sleep, and on waking from them we after-
wards remember it ; so that, in such a case ordinary
dreams act as a connecting link, a bridge, between
the somnambulistic and the waking consciousness.
We must therefore ascribe prophetic dreams to
this, in the first instance, that during deep sleep a
dream may attain somnambulistic clairvoyance : but
since, as a rule, no immediate waking, and con-
sequently no recollection takes place, those dreams
which constitute the exception and prefigure that
which is to come immediately and sensu proprio
are the rarest of all, and these have been called
tJieorematic dreams. On the other hand, if the im-
port of a dream of this sort should touch the
dreamer's personal interests, he may be able to
retain a recollection of it, by including it in a dream
of slighter sleep, from which he may wake at once ;
but then this cannot be done immediately, but solely
by means of translating its import into an allegory,
152 SUPPLEMENT I.
in which guise the original prophetic dream now
reaches the waking consciousness ; where, con-
sequently, it still requires elucidation, interpretation:
This then is the other and more frequent kind of
fatidical dream, the allegorical. Artemidoros already,
in his Oneiro-criticon,\ht oldest of dream-books, has
distinguished the two kinds and called the first the
theorematic.
Mere forebodings, presentiments, should be added
as the last and weakest outcome of this source.
They are more frequently of a sad, than of a .gay
sort ; the misery of life exceeds its joy. A dark
mood, an anxious awaiting of things to come, has
fallen upon us, after sleep, without apparent cause.
According to the above demonstration, this may be
explained in such wise that the theorematic true
dream of deepest sleep, which announced evil, has
not been successfully translated into an allegorical
dream during slighter sleep, and that consequently^
nothing has survived but its impression upon our
feelings, that is upon the Will itself, that last and
proper kernel of man.
This impression then reverberates as a prophetic
misgiving, a dark foreboding, At times such a mi>-
ON VISIONS. 53
giving may only master us when the first circum-
stances pertaining to the evil seem in the theorematic
dream actually come to be present; for instance, if a
man is on the point of going on board a ship which
is to perish, or if he comes near to the store of gun-
powder which is to explode ; many a one has saved
himself by giving way to the anxious forebodings,
the internal fright, that suddenly befell him. We
must explain this as arising from a faint reminiscence,
a vague recollection that remained over from a theo-
rematic dream, and which could not distinctly enter
consciousness, but the trace of which was quickened
by the actual view of things, which in the forgotten
dream had acted so frightfully. The Daemonion of
Socrates, that inner voice of warning which dissuaded
him when he was about to undertake anything
disadvantageous, but always dis- never /^r-suaded,
was of this kind.
SUPPLEMENT II.
ON THE METAPHYSICS OF MUSHC
FROM ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER'S "DIE WELT
J1.S IVJLLE UND VORSTELLUNG." (1818.)
VOL. 1. 52.
( 157 )
52. WE have hitherto considered all fine arts in that
degree of generality suitable to our point of view;
we began with Architecture, the end of which, as
such, is to render clear the objectivation of the Will
on the lowest degree of its visibility, where it
manifests itself as an endeavour of the mass, dull,
undiscerning, but according to law ; yet already
at variance with itself and exhibiting strife, i.e.,
between gravity and inflexibility ; and we ended
with the Tragedy, which, on the highest degree of
the objectivation of the Will, reveals the dissen-
sions of that Will with itself in frightful grandeur
and distinctness; we now find that one fine art
has nevertheless been excluded from our considera-
tion, and had to remain so, as there was no fit
place whatever for it in the system of our exposi-
tion : it is Music. It stands apart from all other arts.
r$8 SUPPLEMENT II.
In it we do not recognise any imitation, reproduc-
tion of an Idea of the things in the world ; yet it is
an art so great and surpassingly glorious, it acts
so mightily upon the innermost being of man, is
there understood so completely and profoundly, as
an entirely universal language, even more distinct
than the language of the perceptible world ; that
we assuredly have more to look for in it than an
exercitium arithmetics occultum nescientis se mime-
rare animi, for which Leibnitz held it,* and yet
was quite right, inasmuch as he only considered
its immediate and outward significance, its husk.
But if it were nothing beyond, the satisfaction
it affords would have to be like that which we feel
at the correct solution of an arithmetical problem,
and could not be that heartfelt joy with which
we listen to the speech of our deepest innermost
self. From our point of view, when our attention
is directed to the sesthetical effect, we must accord
a much more earnest and deep significance to music,
a significance relating to the essential nature of
the world and ourselves, with regard to which
the numerical proportions, into which it can be
* I-eibnitii epistolae, collectio Kortholti : op. 154.
MPTAPHYS1CS OB MUSIC.
esolved, do not stand as the thing designated, but
merely as the symbol.
That it must relate to the world in some sense
or other as a representation to the thing represented,
as copy to model, we may conclude from the
analogy to the remaining arts, to all of which this
character pertains, and to the effect of which upon
us its effect is on the whole akin ; only stronger,
quicker, more inevitable, more infallible. Moreover
its relation as copy to the world as model, must
be deep and delicate, infinitely true and strikingly
correct, for it is understood immediately by every
one, and shows a certain infallibility, inasmuch as
its form can be reduced to rules expressible in
figures, and from which it cannot swerve without
entirely ceasing to be music.
Still the point of comparison between music and
the world, the respect in which that stands to this
in the light of an imitation or reproduction, lies
very deeply hidden. Men have practised music
at all times, without being able to account for it in
this sense. Content with immediately understanding
it, they renounce an abstract comprehension of the
manner of this immediate understanding.
l6o SUPPLEMENT II.
Whilst I gave my mind entirely to the impres-
sions of musical art in its manifold forms, and then
again returned to reflection and the train of thoughts
laid down in the present work, a disclosure pre-
sented itself to me concerning the inner nature of
the art, and the manner of its relation to the world
as a reproduction thereof, such as by analogy we
necessarily assume it to be ; but it is a disclosure
which, though fully sufficient to my mind and
satisfactory for my researches, and probably also
equally convincing to one who has followed me
so far, and agreed with my view of the world, is
nevertheless a disclosure which I recognise as essen-
tially impossible to prove; for it assumes, and takes
for granted, a relation of music as a conception to
that which can essentially never be a conception,*
and requires music to be regarded as a copy of
a model which in itself can never be immediately
perceived.
I can therefore do nothing further here, than state
the view which satisfies me concerning the wondrous
art of tones ; and I must leave the reader's assent or
dissent to be determined by the effect which in part
* Vorstellung, idea.
METAPHYSICS OF MUSIC. l6l
music, and in part the sole and single thought that
constitutes my book, have had upon him. Moreover,
if the account of the significance of music here given
is to be accepted with genuine conviction, I hold it
necessary that music should be heard frequently
with prolonged reference to it, and here again it is
desirable that the whole of the thought I submit
should already be familiar.
The (Platonic) Ideas are the adequate objectiva-
tion of the Will. It is the end of all the arts, except
music, to facilitate the cognition of the Ideas by
means of the representation of single things for
works of art are after all ahvays such ; and the
cognition of the Ideas can only take place under
a corresponding change in the perceiving subject.
Accordingly, all the arts except music objectivate
the Will under mediation only, i.e. by means of the
Ideas : and our world is nothing else than the appear-
ance of the Ideas in multeity, whilst they enter the
principium individuationis* the form of cognition
possible to an individual as such; thus music, as it
ignores the Ideas, does not in the least depend on
the perceptible world ; it ignores it unconditionally ;
and it could still exist, in a certain measure, even ii
* /.*., time and space.
162 SUPPLEMENT II.
the world were not here at all ; which cannot be
3aid of the other arts. For music is as immediate an
objectivation and image of the universal Will as the
rorld itself is, even as the Ideas also are, the diversi-
fied appearance of which constitutes the world. Thus
music is by no means an image of the Ideas as the
other arts are ; but an image of the Will itself, which
is also the Objectivity of the Ideas ; and therefore
the effect of music is so much more powerful and
penetrating than that of other arts : for these speak
of shadows only, whilst it speaks of essentials. As,
however, the same identical Will shows itself in the
Ideas as well as in music, only in each of the two in
a totally different way, there must consequently be a
parallelism, an analogy, though by no means an
immediate likeness, between music and between the
Ideas, whose appearances in diversity and in com-
pleteness constitute the visible world. A reference
fa this analogy may act as an elucidation, and facili-
tate the comprehension of an explanation difficult
because of the inherent darkness of its object.
In the deepest tones of harmony, in the fundamen-
tal bass-notes, I recognise the lowest degrees of the
objectivation of the Will, inorganic nature, thi mass
of the planet. All the higher tones, easily moving
METAPHYSICS OF MUSIC. I(y',
and expiring more quickly, are to be regarded, as is
well known, as the accessory vibrations of the deep
fundamental tone, at the sound of which they are
always to be heard softly vibrating, and it is a rule
of harmony that only those high notes shall meet
upon a bass-note which actually sound with it as
accessory vibrations (its sons harmoniques). This
again is analogous to the view which requires that all
bodies and organisations of nature shall be taken as
arising in course of gradual evolution from the mass
of the planet : this development is their support as
well as their source : and the same relation holds
good between the higher notes and the fundamen-
tal bass. There is a limit as to depth beyond
which no tone is audible: this corresponds to the
fact, that no matter is perceptible without form and
quality, i.e. without showing a power that cannot be
further explained, in which an Idea expresses itself;
in more general terms, that no part of matter can
be entirely without Will ; accordingly, as a certain
degree of height is inseparable from a tone, so every
part of matter in a certain degree shows Will.
Thus the ground bass is to us in harmony, as
inorganic nature is in the world, the rudest mass,
upon which everything rests and from wni:h every-
1 64 SUPPLEMENT II
thing arises and is developed. And further in the
complex of ripieno parts that produce the harmony,
between the bass and the leading melody-singing
part, I would recognise the entire gradation of the
Ideas in which the Will objectivates itself. Those
that stand nearer to the bass being the lower of
thos-2 gradations, inorganic bodies still, yet express-
ing themselves in manifold ways : those that lie
higher represent to me the world of plants and
animals. The fixed intervals of the scale are
parallel to the distinct grades of the objectivation of
the Will, the distinct species in nature. The devia-
tions from an arithmetical correctness of the in-
tervals, by means of any sort of " Temperament," or
brought about by the Key chosen, are analogous to
the deviations of individuals from the type of the
species ; and even the impure sounds that give no
distinct interval may be compared to the monstrous
malformations that arise from a connection between
two species of animals, etc,
*
In the high principal part, that leads the whole
and progresses as one consistent thought from be-
ginning to end with unfettered freedom in the
Melody, I would recognise the highest grade of the
METAPHYSICS OF MJSIC. 105
objectivation of the Will, the conscious life and
strife of man. As man alone is gifted with under-
standing and ever looks before and behind him upon
his actual path and the innumerable possibilities,
and thus pursues a conscious and therefore, as a
whole, consistent course, similarly Melody alone
possesses significant connection, exhibiting a con-
scious design from beginning to end. Accordingly
it tells the story of the Will in the light of con-
sciousness (the impress of the Will in reality being
the succession of its deeds) ; but melody reveals
more, it relates the most hidden history of the Will,
paints each emotion, each endeavour, each move-
ment, all that reason gathers together under the
wide and negative conception of feeling, and which
it can no longer grasp as absmctions. Therefore, /
also, it has always been said that music is the
speech of feeling and of passion, as language is of
reason :j Plato already explains it as 77 iG>v /j,e\a)v }
fj,efiit/j,r)uevr], ev TCI? iraB>']p.aaiv orav fyvyr*
(iiielodiarmn motns, aniini affectns ii/titans,
De leg. vii., and Aristotle also says : 8ta rl 6t pv6/j,6i
Kal ra f^eXij, (fxovij cixra ijdeaiv eoitce ; (cur nitmcri
viusici et modi, qui voces sutit, nwribiis similes u'se
exhibentl}, Probl. c. 19.
1 66 SUPPLEMENT II.
Now as the essential nature of man consists in
this that his Will strives, is satisfied and strives
again, and so on for ever, nay that happiness and
well-being consist of this only, that the transition
from a wish to its satisfaction, and from this again
to a new wish, should go on rapidly, as the failing
of that satisfaction produces suffering, just as the
absence of a new wish produces longing, languor,
ennui. Thus, in accordance with this, the essentials
of melody consist in a continuous deviation, swerv-
ing from the keynote, in a thousand ways, not
only to the nearest harmonic notes, to the third or
dominant, but to every tone, to the dissonant
seventh and to the augmented intervals; yet fol-
lowed, in the end, by a return to the starting point :
in all these ways, Melody expresses the 'manifold
strivings of the Will ; whilst, by the final return
to. some harmonic note, or more definitely, by a
return to the keynote, its satisfaction is expressed.
The invention of Melody, the exposition of all the
deepest secrets of human desires and feelings, is
the work of genius, whose work is here, more
obviously than elsewhere, free from all reflection
and conscious purpose, and may be called an in-
spiration, Here abstract notions are sterile, as
METAPHYSICS OF MUSIC. 167
elsewhere in art : the composer reveals the inner- I
most essential being of the world, and expresses
the profoundest wisdom in a language his reason
does not understand ; as a magnetic somnambulist
gives account of things of which she has no notion
when awake. Therefore with a composer, more
than with another artist, the man is separate and
different from the artist.
It is not to be forgotten, however, that music has
no direct, but only a mediate relation to such
analogies r as it never expresses phenomena, but
solely the inner being, the essence of phenomena,
the Will itself. It expresses, therefore, not this or
that single and particular joy, this or that sorrow,
or pain, or horror, or exultation, or hilarity, or
repose of mind itself, but as it were in abstracto, the
essentials of these, without their concomitants, there-
fore without their motives. Nevertheless, in such
quintessence we understand it perfectly. Hence
our fancy is so easily excited by it, and tries to
clothe this invisible spirit world, that speaks to us
so immediately and eloquently, with flesh and
blood, i.e.., to embody it in an analogous example.
We may take the perceptible world, or nature, and
1 68 SUPPLEMENT II.
music as two different expressions of the same thing 1 ,
which thing itself acts as mediator of the analogy of
the two, and the cognition of which is required if the
analogy is to be seen. Accordingly music, regarded
as an expression of the world, is a language possess-
ing the highest degree of generality, which even
stands to the generality of abstract conceptions
much as these stand to single things. But its
generality is by no means that empty generality
of abstraction, but of a totally different sort, and
is throughout consistent, clear, and distinct.
In this respect it resembles geometrical figures
and numbers, which as the general forms of all
possible objects of experience, and applicable to all
d priori ', are nevertheless not abstract, but distinct
throughout. All possible endeavours, excitations
and manifestations of the Will, all those occurrences
in the interior of man, which reason comprises
under the wide negative concept Feeling, can be
expressed by the infinite number of possible melo-
dies, but always in the generality of mere form,
without matter, always as essentials, but not as
externals, as it were the inner soul of things with-
out their body.
This delicate relation in which music stands to
METAPHYSICS OF MUSIC. 169
the true nature of all things, will also explain the
fact that if suitable music be heard to any scene,
action, event, environment, it will seem to reveal
the most secret sense of these, and act as the most
correct and clearest comment upon them ; similarly,
it explains how one who gives his mind entirely
to the impressions of a symphony, will deem alt
possible events of life and the world to be passing
before him ; still, on reflection, he cannot point out
any likeness between the play of tones and the things-
that hovered before his fancy. For, as has already
been said, music differs from all other arts in this:
that it is not an image of phenomena, or more
correctly, of the adequate objectivity of the Will r
but an immediate image of the Will itself,
and represents accordingly the metaphysics of
all that is physical in the world, the thing per
se, which lies behind all appearance. Accordingly
one might call the world embodied music, as well
as embodied Will: which explains why music at
once enhances the significance of every picture,
indeed of every scene of actual life; the more so, of
course, the closer the analogy of its melody comes
to the inner spirit of the given phenomena. The
fact that a poem can be sung, or a pantomimic
SUPPLEMENT II.
representation can be adapted to music or both
united in an opera, rests on this. The connection
of such single and separate pictures of human life
set to the general language of music, is never a
thoroughly necessary, or an adequate one; they
stand to it rather in the relation of an example
chosen at random to a general concept ; they re-
present, with the distinctness of actuality, that which
music expresses in the generality of mere form.
For in a certain measure, melodies are, like general
concepts, an abstrac tof actuality i.e. actuality, the
world of separate things, furnishes the perceptible,
the particular and individual, the single case, for the
generality of concepts, as well as the generality of
melodies ; which two generalities, however, are in a
certain degree opposed to one another; for concepts
contain only the forms just abstracted from per-
ceptions, as it were the husk of things, and are
therefore abstracta in the full sense; whereas music
gives the inmost kernel of things, that precedes all
formation, the v^ery heart of things. This relation
might quite well be expressed in the language of
the Scholiasts, if one were co say : Concepts are
univcrsalia post rein, whereas music gives universalia
AV.te rein, and actuality imiversalia in re.
METAPHYSICS OF MUSIC. 1/1
The general sense of a melody that is set to a
poem, might be covered quite as well by other
examples also chosen at random to meet its general
sense : hence the same tune will fit many stanzas,
hence also the Vaudeville. That a relation between
a composition and a perceptible representation is
possible at all, rests, as said above, upon the fact,
that both are but totally different expressions of
the same essential nature of the world. If then in
a particular case such a relation actually exists, if
the composer has succeeded in expressing the emo-
tions of the Will, which constitute the kernel of the
event, in the general language of music: then the
melody of the song, the music of the opera is
expressive. But the analogy between the two,
found by the composer, must have arisen from the
immediate cognition of the essential nature of the
world, and should not be an imitation conscious of
its purpose, and under the mediation of abstract
notions : else the music does not express the inner
being, the Will itself; but it only produces an
unsatisfactory imitation of its phenomena; as ah
actually imitative music does, for instance many
bits in Haydn's "Seasons" and in his "Creation,"
SUPPLEMENT M.
where phenomena of the perceptible world are imi-
tated directly ; and this is quite reprehensible.
The inexpressibly tender and heartfelt quality
of all music, by virtue of which it touches us as a.
paradise quite familiar yet ever distant, quite com-
prehensible yet so inexplicable, rests upon this : that
it reproduces all emotions of our innermost being,,
but entirely without actuality and far from its pain.
Similarly, the seriousness peculiar to it, which
entirely excludes the Ludicrous from its immediate
domain, is to be explained from the fact that its
object is not the idea (perception, Vorstellung) with
regard to which deception and the Ridiculous are
alone possible ; but rather the Will, which is its
immediate object. And the Will is essentially most
serious, inasmuch as all depends upon it. Even
the marks of repetition, and the Da capo attest the
richness and significance of musical language, for they
would be insufferable in works written with words,
whilst they serve the ends of music and are pleasant:
for to grasp music entirely one should hear it twice.
In presenting these views of music I have en-
deavoured to show that in its most general lan-
guage it expresses the inner being, the essence
of the world, which, under its clearest manifestation,.
-
METAPHYSICS OF MUSIC. 173,
we think of as Will that it expresses this with
the greatest distinctness and truth through a single
medium, mere tones : and further, as, according to
my view and endeavour, philosophy is nothing else
than a complete and correct reproduction and ex-
pression of the essential nature of the World, in very
general terms, as in such terms only a view of the
world is possible that shall be wholly sufficient and
universally applicable; it will not be found very
paradoxical, by one who has followed me so far, ana
entered into my way of thinking, if I say that, sup-
posing an explanation of music, perfectly correct, ex-
haustive, and descending to minute details, should be
possible, that is to say, if a comprehensive reproduc-
tion of that which music expresses could be given
in abstract terms, this would at once be a sufficient
reproduction and explanation of the world in con-
cepts, or an exact equivalent of the same, and
therefore the true philosophy ; and we should con-
sequently be able to turn Leibnitz' saying quoted
above (which, from a lower point of view, is quite
correct) into the following parody, chiming with
our higher view of music : Musica (st exercitium
wetapliysices occnltum ncscientcs se pJiilosopJiari animi.
For scire everywhere means, deposited in abstract
1/4 SUPPLEMENT II.
concepts. And as furthermore, by virtue of the
truth of Leibnitz' saying, that meets with such mani-
fold corroboration, music, apart from its aesthetic
or inner significance, and considered in its outward
and purely empirical aspect only, is nothing else
than the means to grasp those larger numbers and
more complicated relations of numbers direct and
in concrete which otherwise we can only conceive
through the mediation of abstract concepts : we
might thus, by combining these two different and
yet correct views of music, form a conception of the
possibility of a philosophy of numbers, such as that
of Pythagoras was, and that of the Chinese in the
Y-king ; and we would in this sense interpret the
Pythagorean saying which Sextus Empiricus (adv.
Math., L. VII.) quotes : ry dptdpco Se ra irav-r eVeot-
Kev (numero cuncta assimilantur). And if finally
we connect this view with our interpretation of
harmony and melody given above we shall find a
mere philosophy of morals without explanation of
nature, such as Socrates wished to introduce, quite
analogous to melody without harmony, which Rous-
seau desired exclusively; and, contrariwise, mere
Physics and Metaphysics without Ethics would be
equivalent to harmony without melody.
METAPHYSICS OF MUSIC. !/>,
One might add a good deal as to the manner in
which the perception of music takes place : i.e. solely
and exclusively in and through time, with the total
exclusion of space, also without any influence of the
perception of causality, i.e. of the understanding ;
for the aesthetical impression is the immediate effect
of musical sounds, to realise which we have not to
turn back to its cause, as in the case with percep-
tion. ......
Ibid. Vol. ii. Chap. 39.
The music of an opera, as the score presents
it, has a totally independent, separate, as it were
abstract existence, to which the actions and persons
of the play are alien, and which follows its own laws ;
wherefore it is quite effective even without the words.
Music which has been composed with reference
to the drama is, as it were, the soul of it ; inas-
much as the music in its combination with the
action, persons, and words, becomes the expression
of the inner significance, upon which the final and
hidden necessity of their action rests. And it is a
vague feeling of this that causes the delight of the
spectator if he is not a mere gaper.
Here, in the opera, music shows its heterogeneous
nature and higher being by its total indifference to-
176 SUPPLEMENT II.
wards all that is material in the action ; in conse-
quence of which it everywhere expresses the storm of
passions and the pathos of feelings by the same means
and accompanies them with the same pomp of its
tones, no matter whether Agamemnon and Achilles, or
the dissensions of a citizen's family, furnish the matter
of the piece. \For nothing but passions, the emotions
of the Will, exist for music, and, godlike, it sees the
heart only. It never assimilates to the matter : con-
sequently, even when it accompanies the most
ridiculous and extravagant drollery of the comic
opera, it still retains its essential beauty, purity, and
sublimity ; and though blending with those actions,
it retains its elevation, alien to all that is ludicrous.
Thus the deep and earnest significance of our
existence pends above the farce and the endless
miseries of human life, and never leaves it for a
single moment.
If we look at merely instrumental music, we shall
see, in one of Beethoven's symphonies, the greatest
confusion, at the bottom of which nevertheless there
is the most perfect order, the most violent strife, that
in the next moment grows into loveliest concord : it
is rerum concordia discors, a true and complete image
of the essential nature of the world, that rolls on in
METAPHYSICS OF MUSIC. 177
the immeasurable complication of countless shapes,
and supports itself by constant destruction. At the
same time all human passions and emotions speak
from this symphony : joy, sorrow, love, hate, fright,
hope, &c., in countless gradations, all however, as it
were, in the abstract only, and without any particu-
larity ; it is mere form, without materials, a mere
spirit world, without matter. It is true, however, that
we are inclined to realise it while listening", to clothe
it in our fancy with flesh and bone, and to see all
manner of scenes of life and nature in it. Yet on the
whole, this neither facilitates its comprehension, nor
enhances its delight, giving rather a heterogeneous
0*00 o
and arbitrary alloy : it is therefore better to receive it
directly and in its purity.
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BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OF FIDDLERS. Includ-
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bevelled cloth, os.
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CHERUBINI. Memorials illustrative of his Life. By E.
BELLASIS. Thick crown 8vo, cloth, 6s.
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14 BIOGRAPHICAL.
PURCELL. By WILLIAM H. CUMMINGS, Mus.Doc. Crown
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CONTENTS : Birth and Parentage Under Sarti Earliest Works Visits
London Lodoiska Medee Les Deux Journeeg Faniska Berlioz and Alt
Baba Cherubini's Overtures A Sacred Music Composer Mass in F
Mass in D minor Mass in C Requiem in C minor Requiem in D minor
Cherubini's Proliflcness At Catel's Grave Death, Obsequies and Career
His Influence upon Music Estimate of his Dramatic Works Of his
Sacred Works Influence as a Teacher Temperament and Disposition-
Anecdotes of Cherubini Catalogue of Compositions Index.
SKETCHES OF GREAT VIOLINISTS AND GREAT PIAN-
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HISTORY.
THE NATIONAL MUSIC OF THE WORLD. By H. F.
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THE MUSIC OF THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS. Par-
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authorities on his subject in Europe, he became a collector when oppor-
tunities were more frequent than they are now for acquiring rare instru-
ments and books. He thus formed a private museum and library that
could hardly be rivalled except by a few public institutions."
CHRONOMETRICAL CHART OF MUSICAL HISTORY.
Presenting a Bird's Eye View from the Pre-Christian
Era to the XXth Century. By C. A. HARRIS,
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1C
HISTORY. 17
CATECHISM OF MUSICAL HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY,
By F. J. CKOWEST. Revised and Enlarged Edition.
Tenth Thousand. 187 pp. Post 8vo, cloth, 2s. (paper, Is.)
This work gives special attention to English musicians, and is brought
down to 1905.
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cal and critical in a very small compass."
THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF MUSIC.
Described in Chapters on the Study of Musical History.
By EDWARD DICKINSON. With an Annotated Guide to
Music Literature. Over 400 pp. Thick 8vo, cloth, 10s.
CHAPTERS : 1. Primitive Music. 2. Music of the Ancient Cultured
Nations: Assyrians, Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks and Romans. 3. Song in
the Early Christian Church. 4. The Catholic Liturgy. 5. The Catholic
Liturgic Chant. 6. Beginnings of Polyphonic Music. Popular Music in the
Middle Ages. 7. The Age of the Netherlander, 1400-1550. 8. Choral Music
of the Sixteenth Century. 9. Early German Protestant Music. 10. Pro-
testant Church Music in England. 11. The Madrigal The Opera Modern
Tonality. 12. Early Growth of Instrumental Music. 13. The Violin and
its Music : First Stages of the Suite and Sonata. 14. Keyed Chamber In-
struments : Progress of the Clavier Suite and Sonata. 15. The Italian Opera
in the Seventeenth Century. 16 The Opera Buffa, Seventeenth and Eigh-
teenth Centuries. 17. Rise of the Opera in France, Seventeenth Century.
18. Italian Opera Seria in the Eighteenth Century. 19. Introduction of
the Italian Dramatic Forms into German Religious Music. 20. Johann
Sebastian Bach, 1685-1750. 21. Handel, 1685-1759. 22. Opera-Comique in the
Eighteenth Century. 23. Gluck, 1714-1787. 24. Haydn, 1732-1809. 25. Mozart,
1756-1791. 26. Beethoven. 1770 1827. 27. The German Romantic Opera.
Weber, 1786 1826. 28. The German Lied. Schubert, 1797-1828. 29. Piano
Playing to about 1830. 30. Schumann, 1810 1856. 31. Mendelssohn, 109-
1847. 32. Chopin, 1809 1849. 33. Programme Music. 34. Berlioz, 1803 1869.
35. Liszt, 1811-1886. 36. The Opera in the Nineteenth Centttry to about
1850. I. Italian Opera. 37. The Opera in the Nineteenth Century to about
1850. II. French Opera. 38. Wagner, 1813-1883. 39. Recent Music in Ger-
manj and Austria. 40. Recent Music in France. 41. Recent Music in
Italy. 42. Recent Music in Russia. Bohemia and Scandinavia. 43. Recent
Music in England and America. Bibliographical List. Index.
" Mr. Dickinson has written a book of unquestionable value the
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to the best literature in English upon the Art For Mr. Dickinson's
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characterise it in a short but highly concentrated chapter and then give
references to the complete English literature upon the subject. His sum-
maries are models of sound judgment and swift statement, not more than
once or twice, perhaps, could one find fault with either their completeness
in every essential point or their cool and Catholic impartiality. The
bibliographical guides arc practically as full as they could be made
the total omissions are exceedingly trifling, while the extent and the
. accuracy of the information conveyed make the book indispensable to
students and to public libraries.
18 HISTOBY.
MANUAL OF MUSICAL HISTORY. From the Epoch of
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render great service." Christian Age.
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want, of a deeper and more general knowledge of and information as to,
the growth and progress of their art than is common,-' That this intention
has been successfully carried out in the present volume we can conscien-
tiously affirm." Musical Times.
A HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC. With Critical
Estimates of its Greatest Masters and Sketches of their
Lives. By JOHN C. FILLMORE. Edited with an Intro-
ductory Preface by RIDLEY PRENTICE. Crown 8vo,
cloth, 3s. 6d.
SYNOPSIS: The Pianoforte and its Immediate Precursors (the Harpsi-
chord and Clavichord) Polyphonic Music (Bach, Handel, D. Scarlatti)
Homophonic Music (E. Bach, Haydn, Mozart) The Emotional Content of
Music (Beethoven) The Classic and the Romantic in Music (Weber, Schu-
bert, Mendelssohn, Chopin and Schumann) Technique of the First Clas-
sical Period Technique of the Second Classical Period Technique of the
Transition Period Technique of the Romantic Period Minor Composers
and Virtuosi of the Different Epochs Index.
DUDLEY BUCK says of it: "In my judgment the work should be in the
hands of every earnest student."
" The only work of its kind in English. It groups the composers and
their works into epochs and gives a clear description of the different
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composers and their works." Etude.
HISTORY OF HUNGARIAN MUSIC. By J. KALDY (Director
of the Royal Hungarian Opera). .Crown 8vo, bevelled
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MEMOIRS OF THE ROYAL ARTILLERY BAND, Its Origin,
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tary Music in England. By H. G. FARMER. With 14
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The Records of the R.A. Band date as far back as 1762, and its history
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HISTORY. 19
THE RISE OF MUSIC. Being a Careful Enquiry into the
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forth in Egypt and Assyria to its Triumphant Consum-
mation in Modern Effect. Especially bringing out the
Influence of the Church upon the Joint Development of
Harmony and Notation the Importance of that Great
Central Development the Enweavement of the Scales
the Creative Consequences of the Clavier Type of In-
strument and the Explanation of a New and Perfect
Order of Beauty resting upon our Tempered System.
By JOSEPH GODDARD. With Illustrations of early In-
struments and numerous Musical Examples drawn from
Ancient and Modern Sources. With Index. Thick
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stitution of music, in which history is seen to elucidate theory and theory
history.
Readers will greatly appreciate the numerous musical examples culled
from all sources which appear throughout the book.
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THE WORLD'S EARLIEST MUSIC. Traced to its Begin-
nings in Ancient lands. By collected Evidences of
Relics, Records, History and Musical Instruments, from
Greece, Etruria, Egypt, China, through Assyria and
Babylonia to the Primitive Home, the Land of Akkad
and Sumer. By HERMANN SMITH. With 65 full page
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readable manner." If. A. SCOTT in The Academy.
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THE PAST AND THE FUTURE. An Inaugural Lecture at
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ORCHESTRAL.
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THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE MODERN ORCHESTRA
AND EARLY RECORDS OF THE PRECURSORS OF
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Plates. By KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. Two handsome
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worthy section is the bibliography. It occupies a hundred pages and is
the finest work of its kind since ' De Fidictilis Bibliographia ' and will
be found of great value to all musicians."
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book on the subject which it has been our good fortune to read. The
whole line of the investigation is in every sense of the word original ; not
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having arrived at conclusions quite at variance with those of other
writers, she is not afraid to say so. The tone of the book is moderation
itself
The music critic of the American Musical Courier in an able essay says :
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into their humble and remote sources."
" It is no mere echo of other historians but a work of original research.
This is made clear by the fact that novel conclusions are reached and
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sider and probably to reconstruct our notions as to the origin of the
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ham Gazette and Express.
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MODERN ORCHESTRAL INSTRUMENTS, Their History,
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ORCHESTRAL. 21
ON CONDUCTING. By RICHARD WAGNER. Translated by
E. DANNREUTHER. Second Edition, cr. 8vo, cloth, 5s.
A Treatise on Style in the Execution of Classical Music, written by a
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Grove's Dictionary says : " One of the finest of his minor publications,
and to a professional musician perhaps the most instructive. A Treatise
on Style, giving his views as to the true way of rendering classical music,
with minute directions how to do it and how not to do it, together with
many examples in musical type from the instrumental works of Beethoven.
\Veber. Mozart. to."
NOTES ON CONDUCTING AND CONDUCTORS. By T R*.
CROGER, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S., also the Organising and Con-
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HOW TO PLAY FROM SCORE. Treatise on Accompani-
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CONTENTS: Introfluction. 1. On the Different Arrangements of A'oiers
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Concerning the Manner in which the Accompanist should Read a Score in
order to grasp its Substance and its Details. 4. The Mechanism of Ac-
companiment. 5. Concerning the Influence of the Accompanist on the
Vocalist. 6. On Difference of Style. 7. On the Accompaniment of Early
Music without Orchestra, the Duets and Trios of Clari, Durante. Handel
and the Psalma of Marcello. 8. On the Reproduction of Ancient Orches-
tral Accompaniments. 9. On the Modern Style of Accompaniment. 10. On
Mozart, Chcrubmi, Mehul, Spontini, Rossini and the Modern School. 11.
Conclusion.
This popular and useful book might have been entitled " The Art of
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ORGAN.
MODERN ORGAN BUILDING. Being a Practical Explan-
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ADVICE TO YOUNG ORGANISTS. By J. T. FIELD. 2d.
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THE PEDAL ORGAN. Its History, Design and Control.
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THE ORGAN FIFTY YEARS HENCE. A Study of its
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THE EARLY ENGLISH ORGAN BUILDERS and their
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With woodcuts, post Svo, cloth, 3s. 6d.
ORGAN. 23
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON ORGAN BUILDING. By F.
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vol. Demy 8vo, and numerous plates in a royal 4to
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man treatise, tog-ether with his learned diagrams and illustrations."
HERMANN SMITH'S " The Making of Sound In the Organ and In the Or-
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MODERN ORGAN TUNING, The How arid Why, Clearly
Explaining the Nature of the Organ Pipe and the
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toric Record of the Evolution of the Diatonic Scale
from the Greek Tetrachord. By HERMANN SMITH.
Crown 8vo. cloth. 3s. 6/J.
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students alone * * the historical explanations add to the fascination cf
volume." Daily Telegraph.
" Recommended to the notice of organists with the fullest confidence that
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Guardian.
A SHORT HISTORY OF THE ORGAN, ORGANISTS AND
SERVICES OF THE CHAPEL OF ALLEYN'S COL-
LEGE, Dulwich. With Extracts from the Diary of the
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ANALYSIS OF MENDELSSOHN'S ORGAN WORKS. A
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24 OBGAN.
RINK'S PRACTICAL ORGAN SCHOOL: A New Edition.
Carefully Revised. The Pedal Part printed on a Separ-
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Terms translated from the German expressly for this
Edition by JOHN HILES. The Six Books Complete, hand-
somely bound in red cloth, gilt edges, ob. folio, 10s. b'd.
net (issued at 20s.), or the six parts 7s. 6d. net (issued
at 6s. each), parts sold separately.
The best edition ever published of this Grand Classical work. No other
edition will bear comparison with it for care and skill in editing, nor for
beauty of engraving and excellence of printing. One special merit of this
edition is that the bar lines arc bold, and that they are drawn right through
the score, instead of through each staff, as was the custom in days gone by.
The student who will take the trouble to test this edition against any
other, will at once perceive the advantage he gains from this clear and
distinct style of " barring " ; to an advanced performer the matter may be
perhaps of less importance, but even he cannot fail to appreciate the com-
fort of increased legibility.
As a royal road to thorough and sound Organ Playing in all styles, there
is no other School which will bear comparison with this : a Beginner
can follow no better course than to go through it slowly.
THE ORGAN PARTS OF MENDELSSOHN'S ORATORIOS
AND OTHER CHORAL WORKS. Analytically Con-
sidered. By ORLANDO A. MANSFIELD, Mus. Doc.,
F.R.C.O. With numerous Musical Examples. Crown
8vo, cloth, 4s. 6d.
HENRY SMART'S ORGAN COMPOSITIONS ANALYSED.
By J. BROADHOUSE. Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, 2s. 6d.
THE INFLUENCE OF THE ORGAN IN HISTORY. By
DUDLEY BUCK. New Edition with Illustrations. Crown
8vo, sewed, Is. net,
CATECHISM for the Harmonium and American Organ. By
JOHN HILES. Post 8vo, sewed, Is.
REFORM IN ORGAN BUILDING. By THOMAS CASSON.
Crown 8vo, sewed, 6d.
PIANOFORTE.
THE ART OF TEACHING PIANOFORTE PLAYING. A
Systematised Selection of Practical Suggestions for
Young Teachers and Students. By J. ALFRED JOHN-
STONE (author of " Piano Touch, Phrasing and Inter-
pretation," "Modern Tendencies and Old Standards
in Musical Art," etc.). Thick crown 8vo, cloth, 5s.
Many pianists who add to concert playing the labours of a teacher;
many young students about to enter upon the duties of the teaching
profession as their life's labour ; and indeed, not a few of those who have
spent years at the work of giving lessons in pianoforte playing, fail to
achieve the success their abilities deserve, simply for the lack of some
clear, systematic practical knowledge of the art of teaching. In this
volume methods are suggested, hints are offered, principles and rules are
formulated, courses of study are sketched out ; and all these are suffi-
ciently general and" varied to furnish a useful guide for the teacher
without circumscribing his individual genius or running any risk of
stunting his development.
" Every teacher of a practical mind will, of course, desire to possess a
work of this kind." The Music Student.
" The work of one who is both an experienced instructor and a thorough
musician." Nottingham Guardian.
" The most comprehensive handbook for teachers that we know . .
the chapter on finger exercises is excellent." The Literary World.
" To read this book thoroughly is to a pianist a liberal education . . .
the most comprehensive handbook for piano professors we have ever met
with." Cheltenham Examiner.
AN ESSAY on the Theory and Practice of Tuning in General,
and on Schiebler's Invention of Tuning Pianofortes
and Organs by the Metronome in Particular. Trans-
lated by A. WEHRHAN. Crown 8vo, eewed, Is.
A
lated by A. WEHRHAN. Crown 8vo, eewed, Is.
PRACTICE REGISTER for Pupil's Daily Practice.
Specimen, Id., or Is. per 100.
REEVES' VAMPING TUTOR. Art of Extemporaneous Ac-
companiment, or Playing by Ear or. the Pianoforte,
Rapidly Enabling anyoire having an Ear for Music (with
or without any knowledge of Musical Notation) to Ac-
company with Equal Facility in any Key with Prac-
tical Examples. By FRANCIS TAYLOR. New Edition,
to which is added Instructions for Accompaniment
with Equal Facility in every Key illustrated by Ex-
amples. Folio, 2s.
REEVES' THE POPULAR PIANOFORTE TUTOR. Instruc-
tions, Scales, Exercises, Tunes. Folio, Is.
26 PIANOFOETE.
PIANOFORTE TEACHER'S GUIDE. By L. PLAIDY. Trans-
lated by FANNY RAYMOND HITTER. Crown 8vo, boards,
Is.
" Evidently written by a pianist who is a thorough master of his instru-
ment as well as a good teacher." Educational Times.
" Some of the finest pianists of the day owe much of their technical
facility to Plaidy's excellent method." Bazaar.
THE ART OF TUNING THE PIANOFORTE, A New and
Comprehensive Treatise to Enable the Musician to Tune
his Pianoforte upon the System founded on the Theory
of Equal Temperament. By HERMANN SMITH. Crown
8vo, limp cloth, New Edition, thoroughly Revised, 2s.
Readers will welcome this note of approval signed by A. J. Hipkins, a
name long associated with the Pianoforte and familinr TO most musicians
in the musical literature of the present time. No bettor voucher could be
desired of the fair claims of this little book upon the render's attention and
confidence. " I have had the privilege of reading the proofs of Mr. Her-
mann Smith's clear and exhaustive treatise on Pianoforte Tuning, and I
am satisfied that for the professional tuner, or the amateur who desires to
understand the subject and put the knowledge he acquires into practice,
there is no book upon it yet published that may be compared with it. I
recommend all tuners or wov. Id-be tuners to study this unpretending and
excellent work, wherein the theory is laid down in clear and correct terms,
and the practice, as far as this is possible, is indicated judiciously."
THE DEPPE FINGER EXERCISES for Rapidly Developing
an Artistic Touch in Pianoforte Playing, carefully Ar-
ranged, Classified and Explained by AMY FAY (Pupil
of Tausig, Kullak, Liszt and Deppe). Folio, English
Fingering, Is. 6d. (Continental Fingering, Is. 6d.)
The Musical Times says: We are asked by a well known pianist to say
that Herr Emil Sauer was trained up to his seventeenth year on the Dcppe
system and that he owes his wonderful technique almost solely to that
method * * * Our correspondent adds that Herr Sauer speaks as enthusins
tically of the Deppe method as did Miss Amy Fay.
PIANOFORTE SCALES IN THIRDS AND SIXTHS FOR
EACH HAND, In All the Major and Minor Keys. Fin-
gered and Arranged by M. ROCK. Is. 6d. net (pub-
lished at 4s.)
PIANO TEACHING. Advice to Pupils and Young Teachers.
By F. LE COUPPEY (Prof, in the Conservatory of Music,
Paris, etc.) Translated from the Third French Edition
by M. A. BIERSTADT. Post 8vo, cloth, 2s.
;i Well worthy of perusal both by young teachers and pupils. The book
contains sound advice, particularly applicable to the study of Pianoforte
playing." W. H. WEBBE in The Pianist's A. B. C.
PIANOFOBTE. 27,
TECHNICAL STUDY IN THE ART OF PIANOFORTE
PLAYING (Deppe's Principles). By C. A. EHREN- '
FECHTER. With numerous Illustrations. Fourth Edi-
tion. Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, 2s. 6d.
CONTENTS: Position Arm Wrist Fingers; Touch (Tone Production);
Legato ; Equality of Tone ; Tension and Contraction ; Five Finger Exer-
cises ; Skips; The Scale; Arpeggio Chords; Firm Chords; High Raising of
the Arm; Melody and its Accompaniment; Connection of Firm Chords;
The Tremolo; The Shake (Trill) ; The Pedal ; Finirering.
A detailed and exhaustive exposition of Deppe's principles of the Piano-
forte technic in all its features, notably with regard to touch and pas-
sage playing, showing the immense advantage to be gained by their appli-
cation, from the elementary to the hisrlifv stages of technical development.
A piano-student writes :" Most useful. I am always re-rea^mg and
studying it. It has helped me a lot."
A professional musician who studied after this method, writes in an issue
of the Musical Standard as follows : " I am sure many must have felt with
me that the old system of teaching was useless for the production of a
technique fit to grapple with the appalling difficulties of much of the music
of the modern romantic school of composers. Let all whom are ambitious
to overcome such difficulties attack them on the lines laid down by C. A.
Ehrenfechter, and I am convinced they will find, as I have done, their
desires realised in a most astonishing manner."
WELL-KNOWN PIANO SOLOS. How to Play them with
Understanding, Expression and Effect. By CHARLES
W. WILKINSON. Three Series. Each containing 26
Articles dealing with the Works of Binding, Scarlatti,
Paderewski, Handel, Rubinstein, Scharwenka, Schu-
mann, Godard, Delibes and other Composers. Crown
8vo, Is. each.
Contents of the First Series : SINDING, Rustle of Spring. SCARLATTI,
Pastorale fc Capriccio. PADF.BF.WSKT, Minuet in G. HANDEL, Harmonious
Blacksmith. RUBINSTEIN, Melody in F. SCHABWFNKA, Polish Dance.
SCHUMANN, Nachtstiicke. GODABD, Mazurka. DEI.IBES, Pizzicati from
Sylvia. GBTEG, Wedding Day at Trolclhangrn. EI.GAR, Salut d'Amour.
PADKRF.WSKT, Melodic. RAFF, La Fileuse. TCHAIKOVSKY, Troika. GODABD,
Berger et Bergeres. CHAMINADE, Pierrette. MOSZROWSKI, Etincelles.
PADKREWSKI, Minuet in A Major. GRIF.G, Norwegian Bridal Procession.
LISZT, Regata Veneziana. CHAMINAPE, Antomne. MOSZKOWSKI, Seronata.
LACK, Valse Arabesque. SCHUMANN, Arabeske. CHOPIN, Etude in G Flat.
DUIUND, First Valse.
The Second and Third Series contain a similar varied selection.
Draws one's attention to the beauties in a piece, explains difficulties here
and there, draws attention to a pedal effect and any peculiarity of finger-
ing, and generally gives all the information a professor is expected to
give to his pupils.
" Described in detail in a manner to be understood by the youngest
student, and with a charm that must ensure the popularity of the book."
Aberdeen Daily Journal.
" In plain language free from technicalities proffers valuable help to the
budding piano soloist." Leicester Mail.
28 PIANOFOBTE.
DELIVERY IN THE ART OF PIANOFORTE PLAYIITG, On
Rhythm, Measure, Phrasing, Tempo. By C. A. EHREN-
FECHTER. Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, 2s.
" Deals with rhythm, measure, phrasing- and tempo as applied to piano-
forte playing * * explains the difference-between the subjective and objec-
tive in delivery and expresses his opinion that a performance of the born
artist must of necessity be subjective, while the wavering, undecided, and
uniusnired amateur will be safest in giving an altogether objective render-
ing. The section with reference to accent" is particularly good. There are
numerous illustrations from the works of the masters." W. H. WEBBK lu
The Pianist's A. B.C.
PIANO TOUCH, PHRASING AND INTERPRETATION. By
J. ALFRED JOHNSTONE (author of "The Art of Teaching
Piano Playing," etc.) Crown 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d.
" We can unreservedly recommend this book to all musical people who
are pianists." Cheltenham Examiner.
" This is a book of rare educational excellence the work of an expert
of acknowledged standing and experience, who possesses not only a very
complete knowledge of his subject, but also the faculty of expressing
himself in clear and unmistakable terms." Aberdeen Daily Journal.
HANDBOOK TO CHOPIN'S WORKS. Giving a Detailed
Account of all the Compositions of Chopin. Short
Analyses for the Piano Student and Critical Quota-
tions from the Writings of Well-Known Musical
Authors. By G. C. ASHTON JONSON. The Whole
Forming a Complete Guide for Concert-Goers, Pianists
and Pianola-Players, also a Short Biography, Critical
Bibliography and a Chronological List of Works, etc.
Crown 8vo, cloth, gilt top, 6s.
Will be found equally useful and helpful to concert-goers, for whom it
forms a permanent analytical programme, to pianists, and to those ama-
teurs of music who can now, owing to the pianola, pursue for the first
time a systematic and co-ordinated study of Chopin's works, a delight
hitherto denied to them owing to their inability to read or play the more
difficult compositions.
" Here in one compact volume, is all that it is necessary to know about
Chopin and his works except by the leisured enthusiast * * * Each separ-
ate opus is placed in its proper sequence, and attached to them are brief
extracts, again from very n-any writings, together with Mr. Ashton
Jonson's own lucid criticisms. The task is well done ; nothing has ap-
parently been left out that ought to have been put in, and never once
can our author be accused of being tedious. The book should be greatly
studied by all." Daily Chronicle.
TECHNICAL AND THEORETICAL.
ON THE MODAL ACCOMPANIMENT OF PLAIN CHANT.
A Practical Treatise. By EDWIN EVANS, Senior,
F.E.C.O. (author of "Handbook to the Works of
Brahms," " How to Compose Within the Lyric Form,"
etc.) Part I, Theoretical ; Part II, Practical School of
Plain Chant Accompaniment, consisting of 240 Exer-
cises, with an Appendix of Notes. This work is dedi-
cated by special permission to Cardinal Vaughan, Car-
dinal Archbishop of Westminster. Crown 8vo, cloth,
3s. 6d. net.
MODERN CHORDS EXPLAINED. (The Tonal Scale in
Harmony.) By ARTHUR G. POTTER. With Musical Ex-
amples from the Works of C. Debussy, Richard Strauss
and Granville Bantock. 8vo, limp cloth, Is. (paper
cover, 6d. net).
" Well worth reading .... writes with conviction, and his observations
on modern harmony, with examples ranging from Purcell to Strauss and
Debussy, should interest every musician." Daily Mail.
" Will undoubtedly interest those students of harmony who have been
striving to analyse chords for which there seemed to be no solution on the
diatonic scale." Irish Presbyterian.
THE HARMONISING OF MELODIES. A Text-Book for
Students and Beginners. By H. C. BANISTER. Third
Edition, with numerous Musical Examples. Crown 8vo,
limp cloth, 2s.
CHAPTERS : Introductory, The Resources of Harmony; Harmonising with
Common Chords Only, General Principles ; Couplets of Common Chords ;
Plan, Rhythmical Structure, Phrases, Cadences; Cadences in Connection
with Modulation, Melodies in the Minor Mode ; Continuity, Congruity with
Words ; Illustrations of Harmonising the same Melody in Different Ways
with Changed Mode; Florid Melodies, Unessential Notes, Different Forms
of Harmonising ; Pianoforte Accompaniment to a Melody ; Arpeggio Ac-
companiment ; Accidentals and Chromatic Passing Notes, A Caution,
Summary.
EXERCISES IN VOCAL SCORE READING. Collected from
the Works of Orlando di Lasso, Palestrina, Vittoria,
Barcroft, Redford, Peter Certon, Byrd, Gibbons, Croft,
Rogers, Boyce, etc. For Students preparing for the
R.C.O. and other Examinations. By JAMES LYON,
Mus.Doc. Oxon. 4to, paper covers, 3s.
Although there are books on vocal score reading in existence, the author
has found the exercises contained in this book taken from the workg of
writers of the early contrapuntal school of the greatest possible value in
his private teaching, and he ventures to think that students preparing
for diplomas where vocal score reading is required, will welcome suoh a
collection as this
2,9
30 TECHNICAL AND THEORETICAL.
EXERCISES IN FIGURED BASS AND MELODY BAR-
MONIZATION. By JAMES LYON, Mus.Doc. 4to, paper
covers, 2s.
EXAMPLES OF FOUR PART WRITING FROM FIGURED
BASSES AND GIVEN MELODIES. By JAMES LYON,
Mus.Doc. 4to, paper covers, 4s.
These exercises are printed in open score so as to be of use in score
reading tests. This volume forms a key to " Exercises in Figured Bass "
by the same author.
HOW TO COMPOSE. A Practical Guide to the Composi-
tion of all Works within the Lyric Form, and which
include the Valse, Gavotte, Mazurka, Polonaise,
March, Minuet, and all Ordinary Dance Forms ; as also
the Nocturne, Impromptu, Berceuse, Reverie and
Similar Characteristic Pieces. By EDWIN EVANS,
SENIOR, F.E.C.O. (author of "The Relation of Tchai-
kovsky to Art-Questions of the Day," "A Handbook to
Brahms' Works," "The Modal Accompaniment to
Plain Chant," etc.). With 60 Musical Examples.
Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. (paper, Is. 6d. net).
The plan adopted is that of gradually developing a full composition
under the reader's own observation ; and of explaining to him every
feature as it occurs in such plain terms that the merest average musical
knowledge is alone required for its comprehension.
" A daring subject to tackle, and one that in most cases would be
better left alone. We must confess that we opened the book feeling very
sceptical ; but the author who is well known as one of the most thought-
ful of our musical litterateurs has handled his subject in a manner that
compels our admiration. To the young musician who feels that he has
something to say, we strongly advise the immediate purchase of this
thoughtful and distinctly practical treatise. It will save him from that
loose, meandering, formless music so characteristic, unfortunately, of
many of the early works of our young composers." Aberdeen Daily
Journal.
PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL TERMS. By
DR. DUDLEY BUCK. Sixth Edition, with the Pronunciation
of each Term accurately given. Edited and Revised by
A. WHITTINGHAM. Crown 8vo, cloth, Is. (paper, 6d.)
A most valuable and useful little book to all musical people. The method
adopted for giving the correct pronunciation of each term is most concise
and cloiir.
THE STUDENT'S BOOK OF CHORDS. By PASCAL NEED-
HAM. Crown 8vo, sewed, 6d.
The Author says : A very large number of music students, executive and
theoretical, have expressed to me from time to time a desire for a cheap
book, in which the chords with their inversions and resolutions are briefly
and clearlj- exolained. To theso students I dedicate this work.
TECHNICAL AND THEORETICAL. 31
HARMONY, EASILY AND PROGRESSIVELY ARRANGED.
Presenting in a Simple Manner the Elementary Ideas as
well as the Introduction to the Study of Harmony.
With about 300 Musical Examples and Exercises. By
PAUL COLBERG. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. (paper, Is.)
August Wilhelmj says: "This work is distinguished by brevity and
clearness 1 most warmly recommend it."
THE RUDIMENTS OF GREGORIAN MUSIC. By FRANCIB
BURGESS, F.S.A., Scot. Crown 8vo, 6d.
Plainsong or Gregorian Music, is the generic name given to that great
system of ecclesiastical melody formulated by the primitive Church and
retained in later ages as the official chant for use during the most solemn
acts of Christian worship. As a system it represents the accumulated
knowledge of several centuries usually accounted great by those who
respect tradition and whilst its peculiar and characteristic solemnity
marks it out as an ideal form of sacred music which the modern composer
may study with profit.
" An entertaining and instructive brochure." Burton Daily Mail.
" A very clear and concise treatise." Liverpool Daily Post.
EXERCISES ON GENERAL ELEMENTARY MUSIC. A
Book for Beginners. By K. PAIGE. Fourth Edition,
Part I. Price 9d. Part II., price Is. Crown 8vo,
sewed (2 parts complete in cloth, 2s. 4d.)
CONTENTS of PART I. 1. Pitch. 2. Length of Sounds. 3. Time. 4. Time
and Accent. 5. Intervals. 6. Scales. 7. Transposition. 8. Syncopation. 9.
Signs and Abbreviations. 10. Notation. 11. Miscellaneous Questions and
Exercises.
CONTENTS of PART II. 1. Triads. 2. First Inversion of a Triad. 3. Second
Inversion of a Triad. 4. Dissonances. 5. Suspensions. 6. Sequences. 7.
Cadences. 8. Dominant Sevenths, etc., etc.
" We have much praise not only for the general arrangement of the book,
but for the lucid manner in which the questions are put. The Chapters on
Time and Accent are exceedingly good, and there are some useful exercises
to accustom the pupil to transposition. We are especially pleased, too,
with the method of writing incomplete bars, and asking the pupil to supply
the missing parts with rests ; also of requiring notes to be changed into
rests and rests into notes." Musical Times.
A FIRST BOOK OF MUSIC FOR BEGINNERS, Embodying
Recent English and Continental Teaching. By ALFRED
WIUTTINGHAM. Sixth Thousand. Crown 8vo, sewed, 2d.
The two principal objects kept in view in writing this little book were
Thoroughness of Definition and Koguliir Order in the nrrr.nyviii' nt ol Sub-
jects. It differs from all other similar works in that all the technical
terms in music arc introduced in the Answers not in the Questions.
32 TECHNICAL AND THEORETICAL.
ELEMENTARY MUSIC. A Book for Beginners. By DR.
WESTBROOK. With Questions and Vocal Exercises.
Thirteenth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth, Is. Gd. (paper,
Is.)
CONTENTS : 1. The Staff and its Clefs. 2. Notes and their Rests. 3.
Bars and Time. 4. Accidentals. 5. Keys and Scales. 6. Intervals. 7.
Musical Pitch. 8. Accent. 9. Secondary Signs. 10. Ornaments and Groups
of Notes. 11. Voices and Scores. 12. Church Modes. 13. Italian and other
Directions. 14. Foreign Note-Names. 15. Questions. 16. Vocal Exercises
" His explanations are extremely clear. The questions at the end will
be found very useful." Musical Times.
" This little primer is one of the best of its kind, and forms an admir-
able course of preparation for the local examinations in music * * * * it
ensures, as far as a book can, an intelligent and thorough grasp of the
elements of musical knowledge. The questions at the end of the book will
be found invaluable to teachers." Journal of Trinity College, London.
HOW TO MEMORIZE MUSIC. By C. F. KENYON. With
numerous Musical Examples. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s.
(paper, Is.)
" Mr. Kenyon proves himself an excellent guide ; and indeed we know
of no other work devoted to the subject with which he has dealt so thor-
oughly and so successfully." Glasgow Herald.
" Points out the paramount importance of being able to play from
memory. Many useful hints are given on the course of study to be
adopted." Morning Post.
" A most valuable little book of eight chapters, containing valuable
information on the art of memorising, with many illustrations." Western
Morning News.
" May do much good inducing young pianists to exert their brains to-
gether with their fingers." Yorkshire Post.
HARMONY AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF CHORDS.
With Questions and Exercises. By DR. J. H. LEWIS.
Vol. 1, 8vo, boards, cloth back, 5s.
Ditto, Vol. 2. 8vo, boards, cloth. back, 5s.
COUNTERPOINT : A Simple and Intelligible Treatise. Con-
taining the most Important Rules of all Text Books, in
Catechetical Form ; (Forming an Answer to the Question
"What is Counterpoint?") Intended for Beeinners.
By A. LIVINGSTONE HIRST. (Beeves' Educational
Series, No. 6), Crown 8vo, sewed, 9d.
THE ART OF MODULATION. A Hand-book Showing at a
Glance the Modulations from one Key to any Other in
the Octave, consisting of 1,008 Modulations. For the
Use of Organists and Musical Directors Edited by
CARLI ZOELLER. Third Edition. Roy. 8vo, cloth, 4s.
(paper, 2s. 6d.)
TECHNICAL AXV THEOBETICAL. 33
HOW TO HARMONIZE MELODIES. With Hints on Writ-
ing for Strings and Pianoforte Accompaniments. By
J. HENRY BKIDGER, Mus.Bac. With Musical Examples
throughout. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d.
The above work deals with a branch of the subject of Harmony which
in the past received but scant consideration in the standard treatises ;
and though of late years works have appeared dealing more or less fully
with the subject, there are some points which, as the result of many
years' teaching experience, the author considers require to be treated in
greater detail to afford the students the necessary guidance ; such, for
example, as the treatment of the cadences and of accidentals. The present
work is an attempt to supply this, and is almost entirely practical.
CHAPTERS : Method of Study Cadences and Analysis of Melodies Final
Cadences Middle Cadences Harmonization with Primary Chords Domin-
ant Seventh and Secondary Chords Use of other Diatonic Discords Florid
Melodies Accidentals, Modulation and Chromatic Chords Harmonization
in Three and Five Parts Part-Writing for Strings Adding Free Accom-
paniments.
HOW TO WRITE MUSIC IN SHORTHAND. For Com-
posers, Students of Harmony, Counterpoint, etc., can
be Written very Rapidly and is more Legible than
printed Music, with Specimens from Bach, Handel,
Chopin, Wagner, Mendelssohn, Spohr, Mozart, etc. By
FRANCIS TAYLOR. 14 pages, 12mo, sewed, 6d.
TRANSPOSITION AT SIGHT. For Students of the Organ
and Pianoforte. By H. ERNST NICHOL. Fourth Edition,
with numerous Musical Exercises. Crown 8vo, cloth,
Is. 6d. (paper, Is.)
There is no need to dwell upon the usefulness or even the necessity of
transposition to the organist or the accompanist of songs. The practice of
transposing upon the lines here laid down developes the " mental ear,"
quickens the musical perception and gives ease in eight-reading ; as it is
evident that, if the student can transpose at sight, he will not have much
difficulty in merely playing at sight. The author has made free use of the
tonic sol-fa as well as the old notation in his many musical cxamnles.
MUSICAL ANALYSIS. A Handbook for Students. By
H. C. BANISTER. With Musical Illustrations. Crown
8vo, limp cloth, 2s.
This series of Papers has not been intended as a Treatise on its bound-
less subject ; only illustrative of the way in which students may go to
work in the interesting process of Analysis. To work at it is much more
interesting and improving than to read Analysis already made for them.
The student should look out for beauties, even of the simpler kind, as
well as endeavour to solve recondite problems Try and enjoy the land-
scaoe and not merely map out the country.
3
34 TECHNICAL AND THEORETICAL.
THE ART OF MODULATING. A Series of Papers on Modu-
lating at the Pianoforte. By HENRY C. BANISTER.
With 62 Musical Examples. Crown 8vo, limp cloth, 2s.
Moreover in writing a composition there is time to think, devise and
contrive ; but that which is the subject of the above work is promptness,
readiness, and quick thought under special circumstances.
THE STUDENT'S HELMHOLTZ. Musical Acoustics or the
Phenomena of Sound as Connected with Music. By
JOHN BROADHOUSE. With more than 100 Illustrations.
Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d.
" In his Preface the author says : ' The object of the present book is to
give, in one volume, a good general view of the subject to those who can-
neither spare time to read, nor money to buy a number of large and
expensive works.' A perusal of the book justifies us in asserting that this-
design is most satisfactorily carried out ; and it is not too much to say
that although the plan of the work excludes the possibility of minutely
dissecting every subject treated upon, any careful reader may obtain so
clear an insight into the principle of acoustics, as to enable him not only
to pass an examination but to store up a large amount of general know-
ledge upon the phenomena of sound." Musical Times.
" The Student's Helmholtz will be very useful to many musicians, to
whom much in Helmholtz's work must appear obscure. I shall recommend
the book whenever an opportunity offers itself." Dn. RITTEE.
This work has been specially designed for musical students preparing
for examination.
THE MUSICAL STANDARD. A Weekly Newspaper for
Musicians, Professional and Amateur. Established
nearly Half a Century. The Organ of no Clique. In-
dependent Criticisms. Correspondents in all Parts of
the World. Translations of Important Articles from
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every week. "The Violin and String World" given
with the number the last Saturday of each month.
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THE VIOLIN AND OLD VIOLIN MAKERS. Being a His-
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THE ART OF HOLDING THE VIOLIN AND BOW AS EX-
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the Bridge Bow Violin Case Kepairs Preservation Conclusion.
35
36 VIOLIN.
TECHNICS OF VIOLIN PLAYING. By KARL COURVOISIER.
With Illustrations. Tenth Edition. Cloth, 2s. 6d.
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BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OF FIDDLERS. See " Bio-
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VIOLIN MANUFACTURE IN ITALY and its German Origin.
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VIOLIN. 37
THE VIOLIN, Its History and Construction. Illustrated
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VOCAL.
THE VOICE: or the Physiologist versus the Singing Master.
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research and theoretical teaching is in many instances remarkable, and
all students of vocal production and physiology should possess this volume.
VOCAL SCIENCE AND ART. Being Hints on the Produc-
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Boy's Voice, Muscular Relaxation, The Art of Deep
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Notes and Diagrams by J. F. HALLS DALLY, M.A.,
M.D., B.C. Cnntnb., M.B.C.P. Lond., etc. Dedicated
by Kind Permission to the Right Rev. the Lord Bishop
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OBSERVATIONS ON THE FLORID SONG. Or Sentiments
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Translated by MR. GALLIARD. With folding Musical
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Recommended to all Students of the Italian Method of Singing by the
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old Italian singers and singing musters." The Etude.
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the art was probably more thoroughly taught than it has ever been since.
Many of its remarks would still be highly useful." Grove's Dictionary of
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RUDIMENTS OF VOCAL MUSIC. With 42 Preparatory
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38
VOCAL. 39
THE THROAT IN ITS RELATION TO SINGING. A Series
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CONTENTS : Anatomical Structure of the Throat ; What we see with the
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SOME FAMOUS SONGS. An Art Historical Sketch. By
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40
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CATECHISM OF PART SINGING. And the Choral Services.
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" T
WAGNER.
JUDAISM IN MUSIC. Being the Original Essay together
with the Later Supplement. By RICHARD WAGNEK.
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41
42
WAGNER.
BAYREUTH AND MUNICH. A Travelling Record of Ger-
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1. The Philosophy of " Parsifal." 2. Back to a busy World. 3. Munich
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Digression. 7. Back to Bayreuth. 8. Finally Munich : from Two Aspects.
BEETHOVEN. By RICHARD WAGNER.
Section.
See " Biographical"
By RICHARD WAGNER. See " Orches-
ON CONDUCTING.
tral" Section.
WAGNER. See " Makers of Music." (" Biographical " Sect.)
, 5 See "Mezzotints in Modern Music." (^Esthetics,
etc., Section.)
MISCELLANEOUS. 43
MANUSCRIPT MUSIC PAPER.
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(b) 12 Staves. Oblong folio (14 by 10). Ruled in
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(r.) 12 Staves. Folio music size ruled in threes (10 by
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CHOIR ATTENDANCE REGISTER.
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44 MISCELLANEOUS.
THE FIRST Music PRINTED FROM ENGRAVED PLATES IN
ENGLAND.
PARTHENIA Or the First Musick ever Printed for the Vir-
ginals. Composed by three famous Masters, ^WILLIAM
BTRD, DR. JOHN BULL and ORLANDO GIBBONS. Trans-
lated into Modern Notation and Edited by E. F. RIM-
BAULT, LL.D., F.S.A. With Fac-similes of the original
Engraved Title, showing a Lady playing the Virginals,
a page of the Music, and the Curious and Interesting
Dedication. Followed by the whole of the Music
arranged for Playing on the Piano in the Modern Nota-
tion this forming a further 50 pages. Together with an
account of the Virginals, Method of Playing, Early
References, etc. By D RIMBAULT. This Reprint
limited to 250 copies only. Folio, gilt top, rough edges,
imitation old boards, cloin back lettered To Subscribers.
12s. 6d. (pub. 21s.)
The Virginal or Virginals //ota Henry the Seventh's time to nearly the
close of the 17th century, included all quilled Keyboard instruments, the
Harpsichord, Spinet, etc. Henry the Eight, according to a contemporary,
played well on the Virginals. Queen Mary is said to have equalled if not
surpassed Queen Elizabeth in music playing, the Regals and Lute as well
as the Virginals. The first music for this tribe of instruments including
the Harpsichord was the " Parthenia." It consists principally of
" Pavans and " Galliards," in common use for dancing purposes in Queen
Elizabeth's time, " Preludiums," " Fantazia of Foure Parts," etc.
The printing of music from engraved copper plates is supposed to have
begun at Rome where a collection of Canzonets was engraved by Simons
Verovio in 1586. In France towards the end of Louis XIV. 's reign the
great house of Ballard began to make use of engraving, some of Lnlly's
operas being printed from type and some from engraved copper plates
The Germans, of course, practised the art, one early book of Exercises
being composed and engraved by the great John Sebastian Bach himself.
In England " Parthenia " was the first produced, appearing in 1611.
Virdung in 1511 is the oldest authority mentioning the virginals, but
Rimbault quotes the following proverb that was formerly inscribed on a
wall of the Manor House of Leckingfield, Yorkshire, and if, as thought to
be, as old as the time of Henry the Seventh (1485-1509) contains a reference
earlier than Virdung :
" A Slao Strynge in a Virginall sonndithe not aright,
It doth abide no wrestinge it is so loose and light ;
The sound board crasede, forsith the instrumente,
Throw misgovernance to make notes which was not his intente.'
RATIONAL ACCOMPANIMENT TO THE PSALMS. By F.
GILBERT WEBB. Post 8vo, 6d.
MISCELLANEOUS. 45
504 OLD WELSH AIRS. The Lays of My Land. Alawon Fy
Ngwlad. Collected by N. BENNETT. Arranged for
the Pianoforte or Harp by D. E. EVANS. With 12
Portraits of the old Welsh Harpers, and a short Account
of their Lives. Together with an Essay on Pennilion
Singing. Portraits of 10 Celebrated Pennilion Singers.
198 pages, the original two volumes bound in one vol.,
folio, cloth gilt, lettered 12s. 6d. net.
The above is the largest collection of Welsh Airs ever published and
includes some of the oldest Cambrian melodies extant, and contains in the
one volume the original publication to subscribers issued in two volumes
at 2 2s. Notwithstanding the collections of Parry, Jones, Thomas and
others, hundreds of old Cambrian melodies still remained scattered
throughout the country in manuscripts, or were retained in the memory
of harpists, Pennilion singers and others who loved and cherished the
folk-gongs of the past.
To collect some of these treasures, and rescue them from inevitable
oblivion, says the compiler, has been to me a labour of love for more
than half a century * * I secured many an old air of exquisite beauty
from some venerable harpist, or aged Pennilion singer tottering on the
brink of the grave.
ENGLISH GLEE AND MADRIGAL WRITERS. By W. A.
BARRETT. 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d.
" Mr. Barrett is highly to be commended, no less for the vast amount of
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compressed it into a small space." Monthly Musical Record.
NATIONAL SCHOOL OF OPERA IN ENGLAND. Being
the Substance of a Paper read before the Licentiates of
Trinity College, March, 1882. By FRANK AUSTIN.
Post 8vo, sewed, 6d.
MODEST IDYLLS FOR MUSICAL SETTING. By ERNEST
ALFIERI. Crown 8vo, sewed, Is. net.
SONGS FROM THE RAVEL. (Words for Musical Setting.)
A Book of Prose-Lyrics from Life and Nature. By
ERNEST AUSTIN. Op. 30. Crown 8vo, sewed, 2s. 6d.
MINIATURE VOCAL SCORES OF THE ORATORIOS, with
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MESSIAH. ELIJAH. ST. PAUL. CREATION.
HYMN OF PRAISE and HEAR MY PRAYER (in one volume)
46 1XDEX.
1SS. 6d. Life of Chopin. Liszt 11
Making of Sound in the Organ.
Instruments of the Modern Or- Smith 2
chestra and Precursors of the Musical Memories. Spark ... 10
Violin. Schlesinger 20 National Music of the World ... 1&
., _ Some Musical Recollections.
loS. Hoffman D
Organist's Quarterly Journal. Symphony \Vriters since Beet-
Snark 23 hoven. \\eingartner 5-
World's Earliest Music. Smith 19
12s. 6d. 5s
Parthenia 4
Welsh Airs. Bennett 45 ^Esthetics of Musical Art. Hand. 4
Art of Teaching the Pianoforte.
1OS. 6d. Johnstone 25
Music and Musicians, Second ^tf^ftLPj * ** f Fld " 13
K^rPrSTSrgan Behoof 2^ ^ <*&* Composers." Bapl
-I O B Greater Works of Chopin : Their
Proper Interpretation. Klec-
Chopin: His Life and Letters. zynski 5
Karasowski 12 Harmony, Volume I. Lewis ... 3
Chopin : Man and His Music. Harmony, Volume II. Lewis ... 32
Huneker ... 11 Makers of Music. Sharp ... 12
Growth and Development of Memoirs of the Koyal Artillery
Music. Dickinson 17 Band. Farmer 18
Handbook to the Vocal Works oJ Modern Tendencies. Johnstone 4
Brahms. Evans 3 On Conducting. Wagner
Mozart : The Story of His Life. On the Florid Song. Tosi ... 38
Wilder. 2 vois 'J Organist's Quarterly Journal.
Spark 23
8S. 6d. Stradivari. Fetis 10
Music and Musicians, First 4s. Gd.
Series. Schumann 6
Music of the Most Ancient Analysis of Mendelssohn's Organ
Nations. Engel 16 Works. Hathaway 23
Great Violinists and Pianists.
7S. 6d. Ferris U
Organ Parts of Mendelssohn's
History of the Violin. Sandys Oratorios. Mansfield 24
and Forster 3o m se and Development of Opera.
Mezzotints in Modern Music. Goddard 2
Huneker 5
Modern Organ Building. Lewis 22 4j,
National Portrait Gallery of
British Musicians 15 Art of Modulation. Zoeller ... 32
Rink's Practical Organ School 24 Examples of Four-Part Writing.
Hise of Music. Goddard ... 19 Lyon 30
Student's Helmholtz. Broad-
house - 34 . 3S. 6d.
Student's History of Music.
Ritter . 18 Balfe : His Life and Works.
Tchaikovsky, "Life "and "Works'. Barrett 13
Newmarch and Evans 10 Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonatas
Explained. Elterlem 7
6s. Beethoven's Symphonies Dis-
cussed. Teetgen ... ... ... 7
Art of Listening to Music. Beethoven's Symphonies Ex-
Dickinson ... ... _. ... 2 plained. Elteflein 7
Beethoven. Wagner 11 Deeper Sources of Beauty. God-
Chcrubini. Bellasis 13 dard 6
Handbook to Chopin's Works. Early English Organ Builders.
Jonson 28 Riinbault 22
Imaginary Interviews with Great Violinists and Pianists.
Great Composers. Cumberland 4 Ferris 14
INDEX.
3t. 6d. (continued). Choir Attendance Register ... 43
History of Pianoforte Music-. Chronometrical Chart of Musical
Fillmore ............ 18 History. Harris ...
How to Make a Violin. Broad- Delivery in Pianoforte Playing-.
house 37 Ehrenfechter ......... 28
How to Play Chopin'.' Kl'eczynski 6 Exercises in Figured Bass. Lyon 30
How to Play from Score. Fetis 21 Future of Music. Laloy ...... 5
How to Understand Wagner's Harmonising of Melodies. Ban-
"Ring." Kobbe ...... 41 ister ...
Judaism in Music. Wagner ... 41 Harmony. Colberg ......... 31
Life of Beethoven. Nohl ... 13 How to Memorize Music. Ken-
Modal Accompaniment of Plain y n ............... 3-
Chant. Evans ......... 29 How to Play the Fiddle. Gress-
Modern Organ Tuning. Smith 23 well ...... ...... 3fi
Mozart's " Don Giovanni " Com- How to Repair Violins. Com-
mentary. Hutchinson ...... 8 mon ............... Sfi
Piano Touch. Johnstone ... 28 Musical Analysis. Banister ... :
Verdi: Man and Musician ... !) Music-Drama of the Future.
Vocal Science and Art. Gib ... 38 Boughton and Buckley ......
Notes on Conducting. Croirer ... 21
3S. Physical Development and Voice
Production. Adams ... ... 40
Exercises in Vocal Score Read- pjano Teaolli Le c'ouppey ... 26
ing Lyon ... ... ... 39 g Continental Orgn us. Wedge-
Structure and Preservation of wood 22
the Violin. Otto ....... 36 Technicg '" of "Violin Playing!
ft e^j Courvoisier ... ...... 3(5
The Pedal Organ. Casson ... 22
Art of Modulation. Zoeller ... 32 The Throat. Ward
Bach Letters ............ 13 The Violin. Abele and Nieder-
Cherubini. Crowest ...... 14 heitmann ...
Choir Attendance Register ... 43 The T/ lolm and Old Violin
Chopin: From his Diary. Tar- Makers. Clarke ......... 35
nowski and Janotha ". ..... 12 The Voice. Rowley
English Glee and Madrigal Three Impressions of Bayreuth.
Writers. Barrett ...... 45 Koenig ......
From Lvre to Muse. Donovan 7 Training Boys' Voice*. Fleming
History of Hungarian Music. Vamping- Tutor. Taylor ...... 25
Kald'v ............ 18 Violin Manufacture in Italy.
How to Compose. Evans ...... 30 Schebek ...... 'M
How to Harmonize Melodies. _ .
Bridget ............ 33 IS. OU.
Information for Players of Bow . .
Instruments. Hepworth ... 35 Choir Attendance Register 43
Manual of Musical History ... 18 Chopin : From his Diary. Tar-
Masonic Musical Service Book. 1 , now8 '^- " nd J nnotha ...... H
r j no kar 2 Dc PP e Finder Exercises ...... 2t>
Pur "ell. Cumming.'" '." I 14 g 1 ** M " sic ,- ' Westbrook 32
Puritv in Music. Thibaut ... 4 Handel. Wlnttingham
Sixty' Years of Music 15 -^ ow *? Compose. Evans
SmaVt's Organ Compositions An" Masonic Musical Service Book.
alvsed. Broadhouse ...... 24 ^. L lnp . kar u -, ..v: , ......... ,":
Technical Study in the Art of M . ozar f f - \\ t'^^ngham
^ 6 ^^ ^^ 27 5S*& ffS iSS Woodi ~
H? d th?PiSo? Wood- " Tr^sition 'at Sight. Nichoi *1
............ -
^S. Art O f Holding the Violin.
Art of Holding the Violin. Crosby ... . ......... 35
Crosby ............ 35 Bayreuth and Munich. Black-
Art of Modulating. Banister ... 34 burn ............... 42
Art of Tuning the Pianoforte. Catechism for the Harmonium.
Smith ............ 26 Hiles ............... 24
Catechism of Musical History. Catechism of Musical History.
Crowest . 17 Crowest ............ 17
48
INDEX.
Is. (eontinurd).
Catechism of Part-Singring. Hiles 40
Chronometrical Chart of Musical
History. Harris 16
Dictionary of Musical Terms.
Buck 30
Elementary Music. Part II.
Paige 31
Elementary Music. Westbrook 32
Essay on Tuning the Piano.
Wehran 25
Exercises for Boy Choristers.
Fleming 39
Future of Music. Laloy 5
Handel Whittingham 14
Harmony. Colberg 31
History of the Organ at Dul-
wich College. Stocks 23
How to Memorize Music. Ken-
yon 32
How to Play the Fiddle. Gress-
well 36
How to Play AVell-Known Piano
Solos. First Series. Wilkinson 27
How to Play Weil-Known Piano
Solos. Second Series. Wilkinson 27
How to Play Well-Known Piano
Solos. Third Series. Wilkinson 27
How to Repair Violins. Common 36
Influence of the Organ in His-
tory. Buck 24
Liszt. Martin 13
Modern Chords. Potter 29
Modest Idylls for Musical Set-
ting. Alfieri 45
Mozart. Whittingham 14
Musical Hints to Clergymen.
Grover 39
Notes on Conducting. Croger ... 21
Pianoforte Teacher's Guide.
Plaidy 26
Pianoforte Tutor 25
Place of Science in Music.
Saint-George 4
Reform in Organ Building. Cas-
son 24
Some Famous Songs. Ritter ... 39
Songs from the Rnvel. Austin 45
Technics of Violin Playing.
Courvoisier 36
The Organ Fifty Years Hence.
Burgess 22
The Past and the Future. Bridge 19
The Pedal Organ. Casson ... 22
The Throat. Ward 39
The Violin and Old Violin
Makers. Clarke 35
Three Impressions of Bavreuth.
Koenig .. 41
Transposition at Sight. Nichol 33
Twelve Lessons on Breathing.
Thorpe 39
Twenty Lessons on the Voice.
Thorpe 3!)
Violin Manufacture in Italy.
Schebek 36
Woman as a Musician. Ritter ... 8
9d.
Counterpoint. Hirst 32
Elementary Music. Part I. Paige 31
Wagner's " Ring." Kilburn ... 41
6d.
Accompaniment to the Psalms.
\Vebb 44
Book of Chords. Needham ... 30
Dictionary of 4,000 British Musi-
cians. Crowest 13
Dictionary of Musical Terms.
Buck 30
How to Manage a Choral Society.
Kilburn 39
How to Sing an English Ballad.
Philp 39
Manuscript Music Books 43
Modern Chords. Potter 29
National School of Opera.
Austin 4.5
Rudiments of Gregorian Music.
Burgess ... 31
Voice Production. Levien ... 40
Wagner, a Sketch. Kilburn ... 41
Warner's " Parsifal." Kilburn 41
4d.
Manuscript Music Book 43
3d.
Manuscript Music Book 43
2d.
Advice to Young Organists.
Field 22
Music for Beginners. Whitting-
ham 31
Rudiments of Vocal Music. Pat-
tison 38
Schumann's Rules and Maxims 7
Vooal Exercises for Choirs.
Westbrook 40
Id.
Practice Register for Pupils ... 25
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